NATURE-STUDY 
AGRICULTURE 


WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 


FiG.  i.     The  ground  floor  of  an  education. 


A.  T.  Beats 


NEW-WORLD   AGRICULTURE  SERIES 


NATURE-STUDY 
AGRICULTURE 

A  Textbook  for  Beginners 

by  * 
William   T.  S killing,  M.S. 

Super-visor  of  Nature   Study  and  Agriculture 
State   Normal   School,    San   Diego,    California 


ILLUSTRATED 

ivitb  266  engravings  from  photographs 
and  drawings 


Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York 

WORLD    BOOK    COMPANY 

1920 


t.W<>RLD  .BOOK    COMPANY 


'  frfE  '  HOUSE  '<JF'  3V>PLIED    KNOWLEDGE 

Established,  1905,  by  Caspar  W.  Hodgson 
YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 
2126   PRAIRIE   AVENUE,   CHICAGO 

In  no  pursuit  is  there  more  need  for  trained 
intelligence  combined  with  industry  than  in 
agriculture ;  no  subject  offers  better  oppor- 
tunity for  combining  the  cultural  and  voca- 
tional elements  in  education.  Taught  in 
the  spirit  of  nature  study,  agriculture  brings 
the  child  into  sympathetic  relation  with  the 
fundamental  realities  of  his  world  and  at  the 
same  time  gives  instruction  in  the  most  basal 
of  all  vocations.  Yet  there  have  been  lack- 
ing textbooks  that  would  present  the  subject 
to  elementary  school  classes  from  the  nature- 
study  point  of  view.  Prompted  by  these 
considerations,  the  author  and  the  publishers 
have  prepared  Nature-Stiidy  Agriculture,  and 
it  is  their  expectation  that  it  will  form  a  worthy 
addition  to  the  list  of  Books  that  Apply  the 
World's  Knowledge  to  the  World's  Needs 


95 

G' 


Copyright,  1920,  by  World  Book  Company 

Copyright  in  Great  Britain 

All  rights  reserved 


PREFACE 

THE  teaching  of  agriculture  in  grades  below  the  high 
school  has  become  well  established  in  our  schools,  but 
opinions  still  differ  as  to  the  aims  of  the  course  and  as 
to  how  the  subject  should  be  approached.  The  aim 
of  an  elementary  course  in  agriculture  is  well  stated 
in  a  late  report  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association : 
"to  increase  powers  of  appreciation,  to  promote  general 
intelligence,  to  give  a  basis  for  the  formation  of  educa- 
tional ideals  and  the  making  of  vocational  choice,  and 
to  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  possible  applications 
of  science  to  the  useful  arts."  The  most  logical  ap- 
proach to  the  subject  is  through  nature  study,  for  the 
nature-study  phase  of  agriculture,  far  more  than  the 
economic  phases,  deals  with  simple  realities  in  the  lives 
of  boys  and  girls.  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  if  not  impossible 
to  dissociate  the  study  of  agriculture  from  the  study  of 
nature. 

The  manner  of  presentation  is  also  the  subject  of  most 
divergent  opinions.  There  are  those  who  contend  that 
farming  can  be  learned  only  by  doing.  This  suggests 
the  observation  that  a  man  might  be  employed  on  a 
farm,  carrying  "out  the  instructions  of  another,  for  a  life- 
time, yet  never  come  to  understand  the  principles  of 
farming.  Similarly,  a  pupil  might  raise  vegetables  in  a 
home-project  garden,  by  simply  following  the  directions 
on  seed  packages,  and  the  benefit  would  be  to  his  health 
rather  than  to  his  understanding.  Yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  absurd  even  to  think  of  teaching  agriculture 
through  textbook  instruction  alone.  The  reasonable 


50794G 


vi  Preface 

procedure  is  to  teach  principles  in  the  classroom,  dem- 
onstrating them  by  simple  experiments  if  possible,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  have  each  pupil,  where  circum- 
stances permit,  do  some  work  in  a  school  garden  or  on 
a  home  project.  This  practical  work  might  well  be 
conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  home-project  courses  of  study. 

The  subject  of  agriculture,  especially  as  viewed  from 
the  nature-study  angle,  has  so  many  ramifications  that 
it  would  be  unthinkable  to  give  attention,  in  an  elemen- 
tary text,  even  to  every  pertinent  matter.  Yet  a  large 
measure  of  correlation  with  other  subjects  is  inevitable, 
for  agriculture  " levies  tribute  upon  all  the  sciences.'* 
In  this  book,  subject  matter  has  been  included  or  ex- 
cluded in  accordance  with  the  needs  and  interest  of 
pupils  as  determined  by  the  author  during  many  years 
of  experience  as  a  teacher  and  supervisor  of  agriculture. 
The  laying  down  of  any  rigid  rules  of  procedure  has 
been  avoided,  for  the  purpose  has  been  to  make  Nature- 
Study  Agriculture  an  ally  to  teacher  and  pupils  anywhere. 
The  instructor  who  uses  this  text  may  well  see  fit  to 
omit  parts  of  some  chapters,  or  to  supplement  the  mat- 
ter in  other  chapters  with  material  from  the  Farmers' 
Bulletins  to  which  reference  is  made. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

1.  THE  NATURE  OF  PLANTS i 

2.  THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS 14 

3.  THE  SOIL  AND  SOIL  WATER 22 

4.  SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  ITS  PRESERVATION     .        .        .38 

5.  CULTIVATION  AND  DRAINAGE 50 

6.  THE  PROPAGATION  AND  CARE  OF  PLANTS  .        .        .62 

7.  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CROP  PLANTS  ....  88 

8.  FARM  MANAGEMENT  AND  FARM  CROPS       .        .        .  101 

9.  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 123 

10.  ORNAMENTAL  GARDENING 142 

11.  DRY  FARMING  AND  IRRIGATION 156 

12.  SUPPLYING  SOIL  NEEDS 170 

13.  INSECT  ENEMIES  AND  ALLIES 189 

14.  THE  FARMER'S  FEATHERED  HELPERS  ....  220 

15.  THE  SMALLEST  OF  LIVING  THINGS      ....  236 

16.  THE  HERD  AND  THE  DAIRY 251 

17.  FARM  ANIMALS  AND  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING      .  272 

1 8.  POULTRY  KEEPING 296 

INDEX 327 


vu 


NATURE-STUDY  AGRICULTURE 


CHAPTER   ONE 

THE  NATURE  OF  PLANTS 

Thou  lift'st  more  stature  than  a  mortal  man's, 
Yet  ever  piercest  downward  in  the  mold 

And  keepest  hold 
Upon  the  reverend  and  steadfast  earth 

That  gave  the^  birth ; 
Yea,  standest  smiling  in  thy  future  grave, 

Serene  and  brave, 
With  unremitting  breath 
Inhaling  life  from  death. 

SIDNEY  LANIER,  Corn 

THERE  is  a  pretty  story  of  a  Roman  emperor  who  gave 
up  his  power  and  went  to  live  in  the  province  of  his 
birth.  When  a  friend  wrote  a  letter  urging  him  to  be- 
come emperor  again,  he  answered :  "If  you  were  but 
to  come  to  Salona  and  see  the  vegetables  that  I  raise  in 
my  own  garden  and  with  my  own  hands,  you  would 
talk  to  me  no  more  about  empire." 

For  us  the  choice  is  not  between  an  empire  and  a 
farm ;  but  many  of  us  might  choose  between  life  in  the 
city  and  life  in  the  country.  Attractive  as  city  life 
may  be,  there  "is  a  pleasure  in  being  face  to  face  with 
nature,  as  in  the  country.  We  learn  much  on  the  farm 
that  we  could  not  learn  in  the  city,  and,  like  the  Roman 
emperor,  we  find  joy  in  securing  the  direct  reward  of 
our  own  labor. 

The  farmer  of  all  men  needs  to  know  many  things.     His  Three 
business  is  far  from  simple.     To  manage  a  farm  success- 
fully  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  crop  plants  and 


Nature -Study  Agriculture 


Different 
forms  of 
roots 


W.  T.  Skillino 

FIG.  2.  Grasses  have  fibrous  roots. 
Extending  in  every  direction,  they 
form  sod  and  keep  the  topsoil  in 
many  places  from  washing  away. 


W.  T.  Skilltng 

FIG.  3.  The  cabbage  needs  more 
support  than  does  grass.  Note  the 
strong  taproot  and  the  many  small 
roots  branching  from  it. 


how  to  raise  them,  the  soil  in  which  the  crops  are  raised, 
and  the  animals  to  which  they  are  fed.  In  a  study  of 
agriculture  all  three  of  these  matters  must  be  included.' 
We  shall  begin  our  study  with  a  consideration  of  the 
plant. 

The  parts  of  a  plant :  the  roots.  Roots  are  about  as 
widespread  and  long  underground  as  are  the  tops  of 
plants  above  ground ;  and  they  differ  in  form  as  much 
as  do  the  tops.  (Exp.  i.)1  Some  plants,  as  grasses,  have 
fibrous,  threadlike  roots  (Fig.  2).  Others,  as  trees, 
have  roots  that  are  large  near  the  surface  but  branch 
and  rebranch  like  limbs  and  twigs.  Still  others  have 


See  Experiments  and  Observations  at  end  of  chapter. 


The  Nature  of  Plants 


FIG. 


W.  T.  Skillino 
Root  hairs  on  radish  seedlings. 


one  central  root,  called 
a  "  taproot,"  more  promi- 
nent than  any  of  the 
branches,  which  goes 
straight  down  in  search 
of  water  (Fig.  3).  An 
example  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  long  radish.  This 
root  growth  may  be 
compared  to  the  top 
growth  of  such  a  tree  as 
the  tall,  slender  Italian 
cypress. 

The  roots  serve  a  double  purpose.  They  furnish 
anchorage  for  the  plant,  and  they  absorb  water  and  dis- 
solved food  materials.  (Exp.  2.)  Within  the  roots 
there  are  channels  which  lead  up  to  the  part  above 
ground,  but  there  are  no  openings  in  the  roots  to  admit 
the  soil  moisture  and  its  burden  of  dissolved  food  material. 
Evidently,  then,  this  moisture  must  pass  directly  through 
the  thin  outer  covering  of  the  roots  in  order  to  enter 
these  channels.  The  older  and  larger  portions  of  the 
root  are  protected  by  an  almost  waterproof  covering  that 
resembles  bark.  But  the  outer  layers  of  the  newly 
started  branches  on  the  roots  are  soft  and  so  let  the  water 
pass  through.  At  the  tip  of  each  root  there  is  a  "  root 
cap,"  a  hard  covering  that  shields  the  new  and  tender 
growth  of  the  root  as  it  thrusts  its  way  among  the  soil 
particles.  Just  back  of  the  root  cap  is  the  growing  point. 

Near  the  growing  point  the  root  is  covered  with  a  mul- 
titude of  small,  tubular  projections  called  "  root  hairs  " 


The  uses 
of  roots 


How  water 
and  food 
materials 
enter 


The  root 
hairs 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


(Fig.  4),  the  outer  walls  of  which  are  very  thin.     (Exp. 
3.)     It  is  into  these  delicate  tubes  that  most  of  the  water 


FIG.  5. 


Cross  section  of  a  small  root,  magnified,  showing  root  hairs. 
(The  black  specks  are  soil  particles.) 


Their 
importance 


How  they 
grow 


"Root 
pasturage  " 


Why  root 
hairs  are 
hard  to  find 


and  dissolved  food  material  first  finds  its  way.  There 
are  so  many  of  these  root  hairs  that  their  total  surface 
is  from  five  to  ten  times  as  great  as  the  water-receiving 
surface  of  the  roots  themselves  (Fig.  5).  The  root  hairs 
die  as  the  root  grows  longer.  They  never  live  more 
than  a  few  days,  and  they  never  develop  into  roots. 
New  root  hairs  grow  out  continually,  just  back  of  the 
growing  ]5oint. 

The  term  "  root  pasturage  "  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  work  of  the  growing  roots,  as  they  make  their  way 
between  soil  particles  and  constantly  send  out  new  root 
hairs  to  absorb  food  materials  and  water  from  new  soil 
areas.  We  seldom  see  the  root  hairs,  for  although  they 
are  large  enough  to  be  easily  visible,  most  of  them  are  torn 
off  when  we  pull  up  a  plant  even  from  loose  ground.  A 
sort  of  mucilage  which  they  produce  causes  them  to  cling 
closely  to  the  soil  particles. 


The  Nature  of  Plants 


In  transplanting,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  protect 
the  root  hairs,  for  they  shrivel  and  die  almost  at  once  if 
exposed  to  the  air.  Their  home  is  in  moist  soil,  and 
when  taken  out  of  the  soil  they  are  like  fish  out  of  water. 
Even  an  exposure  of  a  few  minutes  will  kill  them.  Since 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  transplant  a  tree  without 
destroying  a  large  portion  of  the  root  hairs,  a  correspond- 
ing portion  of  the  leafy  growth  should  be  removed.  If 
this  is  not  done,  the  few  remaining  water  gatherers  can- 
not keep  the  tree  from  wilting.  (Exp.  4.)  Trees  are 
usually  transplanted  when  they  bear  no  leaves,  because 
a  tree  will  then  need  little  water  until  it  can  develop 
new  root  hairs.  As  most  of  the  feeding  root  hairs  are 
at  the  ends  of  the  roots,  far  out, 
often,  from  the  base  of  the  tree,  it  is 
there  that  we  must  apply  water  and 
fertilizer. 

Through  some  power  that  is  not 
well  understood,  the  roots  select  and 
absorb  in  larger  quantities  those  sub- 
stances that  the  plant  most  needs  as 
food  material ;  and  this  same  power 
prevents  them  from  absorbing  other 
substances  in  the  soil  water  that  are 
not  useful.  Thus,  although  common 
salt  may  be  more  abundant  in  some 
particular  soil  water  than  potash  is, 
the  amount  of  salt  absorbed  will  be 
small  in  comparison  with  the  amount 
of  the  much  more  needed  potash  that 

FIG.  6.     Experiment  to 

is  taken  in.  show  osmosis. 


The  effect 
of  exposure 
on  root 
hairs 


Why  trans- 
planted 
trees  are 
trimmed 


Where  to 

apply 

water 


The 

selection 
of  plant- 
food 
material 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Osmosis 


Boot 
pressure 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  7.  Transpiration.  These  cans  of  earth  were  prepared  in  the  same 
manner  and  were  balanced ;  but  the  one  with  the  growing  crop  (alfalfa)  be- 
came the  lighter  because  of  its  greater  loss  of  water. 

The  process  by  which  water,  bearing  its  dissolved 
food  material  from  the  soil,  enters  the  roots  may  be 
illustrated  in  various  ways.  One  way  is  to  use  an  egg 
(Fig.  6)  to  represent  the  roots.  (Exp.  5.)  Without 
breaking  the  white  membrane  within,  pick  off  some  of 
the  shell  from  the  base  of  the  egg  and  seal  a  small  glass 
tube  into  a  small  opening  made  through  shell  and  mem- 
brane at  the  point  of  the  egg.  (Tallow  dropped  from  a 
burning  candle  is  good  sealing  material.)  If  this  egg 
is  set  in  water,  it  will  correspond  to  the  roots  standing 
in  soil  moisture.  The  water  will  enter  through  the  egg 
membrane  and  push  the  contents  of  the  shell  up  into 
the  glass  tube.  In  the  same  way,  water  containing  dis- 
solved plant-food  material  enters  the  roots  and  pushes 


The  Nature  of  Plants 


sap 


tion 


upward  the  sap  that  has  entered  before.  The  mixing  of 
two  liquids  through  a  membrane  which  separates  them 
is  called  "  osmosis,"  and  the  pressure  that  produces 
it  is  called  "  osmotic  pressure,"  or  in  plants  "  root 
pressure." 

The  plant  stem.  The  stem,  or  in  trees  the  trunk,  The  rise  of 
connects  the  water-  and  food-gathering  roots  with  the 
food  factories,  the  leaves.  Up  through  the  channels 
in  the  stem,  and  into  the  veins  of  the  leaves,  the 
crude  sap  travels,  carrying  the  dissolved  mineral 
matter  taken  from  the  soil  by  the  roots. 

The  larger  part  of  the  water  in  the  sap  that  enters 
the  leaves  evaporates  from  them.     This  giving  off  of 
water  by  a  plant  is  called  "  transpiration"  (Fig.  7).    Sap  Transpira- 
is  drawn  up  to  the  leaves 
to  replace  the  water  that 
is  lost.     If  sap  cannot 
be  drawn  up  as  fast  as 
it    is    evaporated,    the 
leaves  wilt. 

As  water  is  tran- 
spired, the  mineral  mat- 
ter that  the  sap  con- 
tained is  left  behind  to 
be  made  into  plant 
food.  Some  of  the 
water  does  not  evapo- 
rate but  unites  with 
other  materials  in  the 
leaf  for  the  manufac-  FlG- 8-  How  sap  flows  in  a  tree :  A> outer 

bark;    B,  inner  bark;    C,  growing  layer 
ture    Of   plant    food.  (cambium);  D,  sapwood;  E,  heartwood. 


Material 
retained 


ABC    D 


D    CBA 


8 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  return- 
ing sap 


The  differ- 
ence 
between 
rising  and 
descending 
sap 


The   course 
sap 


a  tree 


Breathing 
pores  in 
the  leaves 


The  sap,  after  being  changed  in  the  leaves,  streams 
away  from  them  to  all  parts  of  the  plant.  It  goes  back, 
however,  through  a  different  set 
of  channels  from  those  through 
which  it  passed  on  its  way  up. 
Moreover,  the  returning  sap  is  no 
longer  crude;  it  is  laden  with 
sugar  and  other  foods  that  have 
been  manufactured  in  the  leaves. 
It  supplies  nourishment,  on  its 
journey,  to  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
including  the  roots,  and  some  of 
u.  s.  D.  A.  ft  is  stored,  in  the  form  of  starch, 
FIG.  9.  Droplets  collect  in-  until  it  may  be  needed. 

±£5*  ^  an  ordinary  tree  the  sap  runs 
up  through  the  sap  wood,  which 
lies  near  the  outer  part  of  the  trunk  but  still  well 
below  the  bark.  (Exp.  6.)  The  returning  stream  of 
sap  comes  down  through  the  inner  layer  of  the  bark 
(Fig.  8).  If  a  tree  is  girdled  (cut  all  around)  so  deeply 
as  to  cut  through  the  sapwood,  it  wilts  and  dies  very 
quickly ;  but  if  it  is  girdled  only  deeply  enough  to  cut 
through  the  bark,  the  tree  may  live  for  months.  It  will 
die  eventually,  however,  for  the  roots  cannot  live  long 
without  the  nourishing  sap  that  is  sent  down  from  the 
leaves,  since  the  crude  sap  which  has  not  been  to  the 
leaves  does  not  contain  the  food  that  the  roots  need.  , 
The  leaves.  The  surface  of  each  leaf  contains  thou- 
sands of  little  openings,  called  "  stomata "  (Greek : 
mouths),  into  which  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
air  enter.  It  is  through  these  openings,  also,  that  most 


The  Nature  of  Plants  9 

of  the  moisture  which  has  come  up  from  the  roots  es- 
capes. (Exp.  7.)  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  leaves 
absorb  moisture  from  the  air  (Fig.  9). 

The  green  coloring  matter  which  forms  in  the  leaves   The 
as  soon  as  they  come  above  ground  is  called  "  chloro-  ^hhrop^hyll 
phyll."      It  is  with    the  aid  of    the    chlorophyll  that 
carbon  dioxid  from  the  air  is  combined  with  water  in 
the  leaves  to  form  starch  and  sugar  which  nourish  the 
plant.     Animals  as  well  as  plants  need  carbon,  but  ani-  How 
mals,  having  no  chlorophyll,  cannot  take  carbon  from  dependent 


the  air.  They  must  get  it  from  the  plants.  Plants  take 
crude  materials  from  earth,  air,  and  water,  and  make  existence 
them  into  substances  that  animals  can  use  as  food. 
They  stand  between  us  and  the  mineral  kingdom, 
preparing  from  crude  minerals  food  suitable  for  us. 

During    the   process    of    food    manufacture,    surplus  Gases  that 
oxygen  is  given  off  through  the  stomata.     At  night  this  pS{r°m 
action  ceases,  since  light  as  well  as  chlorophyll  is  neces- 
sary for  the  manufacture  of  food.     Then  the  plant  gives 
off  carbon  dioxid  instead  of  oxygen.     A  case  is  on  record 
of  a  man  being  suffocated  by  this  gas  while  sleeping 
at  night  in  a  poorly  ventilated  greenhouse. 

If  the  light  is  cut  off  from  a  green  plant,  it  loses  its  How  plants 
chlorophyll,  bleaches  white,  and  eventually  dies  for  lack  J^^JL 
of  food.     (Exp.  8.)     An  example  of  this  is  often  seen  in  chlorophyll 
grass  that  has  been  covered  with  a  board  for  a  few  days. 
If  the  board  is  taken  away  in  time,  the  grass  soon  re- 
gains its  natural  color  and  resumes  its  growth.     Plants 
that  have  no  chlorophyll,  like  mushrooms  and  Indian 
pipe,   lack  the  green  color  of  ordinary  plants.     They 
have  no  power  to  use  the  carbon  dioxid  of  the  air  in  the 


10 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Two 

functions 
of  living 
things 


The  parts 
of  a 
flower 


Why  pollen 
and  ovules 
are 
necessary 


manufacture  of  their  own  food,  and  must  therefore 
depend,  as  animals  do,  upon  vegetable  or  animal  matter 
for  their  food  supply.  For  this  reason  they  grow  usu- 
ally upon  decaying  organic  matter,  such  as  manure  or 
logs. 

Reproduction  of  the  plant :  the  seed.  So  far  we  have 
considered  only  the  vegetative  parts  of  ordinary  plants,  — 
the  organs  that  are  essential  to  the  life  of  the  individual 
plant.  But  in  the  scheme  of  nature  every  kind  of  living 
thing  has  two  chief  functions  :  the  one  is  to  preserve  its 
own  life  as  long  as  possible ;  the  other  is  to  reproduce. 
Plants  reproduce  in  different  ways,  and  in  Chapter  Six 
we  shall  consider  various  methods  by  which  they  may 
be  propagated.  But  most  of  the  plants  that  we  know, 
and  almost  all  of  those  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  do, 
reproduce  by  means  of  seeds  developed  from  flowers. 

In  Figure  10,  the  parts  of  a  typical  flower  are  shown. 
Only  the  ovules  and  the  pollen  are  essential  to  repro- 
duction. (Exp.g.)  The 
petals,  forming  the 
corolla,  though  the 
most  beautiful  part  of 
the  flower,  can  be 
picked  off  without  seri- 
ously injuring  the  seed. 
The  protecting  calyx 
may  likewise  be  re- 
moved. The  ovary  is 


Pollen  on 
Anthers 

Filament 


Stigma 
Style 


Ovules  in 
ovary 

Petals 
forming  Corolla 

Sepals  forming 
Calyx 


FIG.  10.    The  parts  of  a  flower.    (Anther  merely  the  container  of 

and  filament  together  constitute  a  stamen.  fae  OVUleS  ;   the  Stigma 
Stigma,    style,    and    ovary    constitute    the 

pistil.)  and    style     form    the 


The  Nature  of  Plants  n 

passageway  through  which  the  pollen  can  reach  the 
ovules.  Even  the  stamens  and  anthers  are  merely 
supports  on  which  the  pollen  rests.'  We  need  to  con- 
cern ourselves  but  little  about  these  parts  of  the  flower ; 
but  we  must  study  the  action  of  the  ovules  and  the 
pollen,  for  they  produce  the  new  plant. 

When  the  flower  opens,  the  pollen,  which  is  a  very  What  a 
fine  powder,  falls  upon  the  stigma  or  is  carried  there  by  ^ain  does 
the  wind  or  by  insects.     This  is  called  "  pollination." 
Immediately  the  pollen  grains  begin  to  grow,  not  up- 
ward,  but  down   through   the   style.     Like   a   delicate 
rootlet  a  pollen  tube  is  sent  downward  until  it  touches 
the  ovule  at  the  bottom  of  the  style. 

We  can  see  the  pollen  grain  and  also  the  ovule ;  but 
now,  to  make  clear  a  wonderful  process,  we  must  speak 
of  something  which  we  cannot  see  without  the  aid  of  a 
powerful  microscope ;  namely,  the  nucleus.  The  ovule 
has  within  it  a  nucleus ;  the  pollen  grain  also  contains 
a  nucleus.  When  these  nuclei  meet,  they  grow  together 
and  the  ovule  becomes  a  seed.  But  for  the  coming  of 
the  pollen  grain  the  ovule  would  shrivel  and  drop  off, 
never  becoming  a  seed  or  fruit  (Fig.  n  and  Exp.  10). 

The  seed  consists  of  three  principal  parts:   (i)   the   The  parts 
germ  or  embryo  (a  baby  plant),  (2)  the  food  material 
needed  by  the  growing  germ,  and   (3)   the  seed  coat. 
When  we  plant  the  seed,  it  first  absorbs  moisture  through  How  the 
the  seed  coat.     (Exp.  n.)     This  starts  the  germ,  which 
is  already  a   tiny  plant,   to  growing,   and   causes   the 
starchy  food  material  within  the  seed  coat  to  begin  to 
ferment.     The  fermentation  prepares  the  food  substance 
for  use  by  the  little  plant  as  it  grows.     Even  before  the 


12 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


leaves  come  above  ground,  the  roots  have  begun  to  form 
and  are  searching  in  the  soil  for  nourishment  to  take  the 


Pollen  Tube 

Pollen  grain 
nucleus 


The  two 
nuclei! 
have  grown 

•g\  together. 


Ovule  nucleus 


FIG.  ii.     How  fertilization  takes  place. 

place  of  that  stored  in  the  seed,  for  the  scanty  supply 
will  soon  be  exhausted.  (Exp.  12.)  Rich  soil  is  not 
necessary  to  start  seeds  —  all  they  need  at  first  is  mois- 
ture, warmth,  and  air.  (Exp.  13.) 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  roots  of   various   forms:    fibrous; 
branching;  with  taproot;  with  store  of  nourishment;  etc.    Try 
to  tell  why  each  form  of  root  is  advantageous  to  a  different  kind 
of  plant. 

2.  Cut  off  near  the  ground  some  vigorous  plant  and,  by  wrap- 
ping with  adhesive  tape,  fasten  a  small  glass  tube  to  the  cut  stump. 
The  rise  of  sap  in  the  tube  shows  that  water  must  enter  the  plant 
through  the  roots. 

3.  Place  radish  seeds  between  two  pieces  of  wet  blotting 
paper.     Cover,  and  at  one  end  let  the  blotter  hang  in  water  to 
keep  them  from  becoming  too  dry.     Root  hairs  will  form  in  a 
few  days  (Fig.  4). 


The  Nature  of  Plants  13 

4.  Transplant  two  small  plants,  cutting  one  back  severely 
and  leaving  the  other  tmtrimmed.     Watch  their  behavior. 

5.  Perform  the  experiment  in  osmosis  described  on  page  6. 

6.  Place  freshly  cut  stems  bearing  leaves  and  flowers  in  red 
ink,  and  set  in  the  sunshine.     After  a  few  hours  cut  through  the 
stems  and  leaves  at  various  points  to  see  where  the  sap  flows. 

7.  Invert  a  glass  jar  over  growing  plants  (Fig.  9).     Notice  the 
moisture  that  collects  on  the  inside.     (Best  performed  when  the 
sun  is  shining.) 

8.  Cover  green  plants  to  keep  light  from  them.     After  a  few 
days  note  how  the  green  color  (chlorophyll)  begins  to  fade. 

9.  Compare  the  various  forms  of  stamens  and  ovules  in  as 
many  different  flowers  as  you  can. 

10.  Just  as  a  flower  begins  to  open,  cut  off  its  stamens  and  tie 
a  paper  bag  over  it  to  protect  from  other  pollen.     See  if  the  flower 
can  set  seed.     (The  dandelion  would,  but  it  is  an  exception.) 

11.  Plant  a  number  of  large  seeds,  such  as  beans  or  corn,  in 
damp  sand  or  sawdust.     Dig  up  some  each  day  and  note  the 
progress  of  germination. 

12.  Plant  a  few  beans,  and  as  soon  as  the  plants  come  up,  re- 
move from  some  of  them  the  two  thick  leaves  with  the  bean  hull 
on  them.     These  leaves  are  really  the  larger  portion  of  the  orig- 
inal seed.     Do  not  remove  the  little  bud  between  them.     After  a 
week,  note  the  growth  of  the  different  plants.     Why  are  some  of 
the  plants  stunted  ? 

13.  Plant  seeds  of  the  same  kinds  in  soil,  sand,  and  sawdust, 
and  see  if  they  germinate  equally  well.    What  is  necessary  for 
germination  ? 


CHAPTER  TWO 


Learning 
about  plant 
food  male- 
rials 
through 
chemistry 


Elements 

and 

compounds 


Elements 
that  any 
plant  must 
have 


THE   FOOD    OF  PLANTS 

Out  of  its  little  hill  faithfully  rise  the  potato's  dark  green  leaves, 
Out  of  its  little  hill  rises  the  yellow  maize  stalk. 

WALT  WHITMAN 

To  have  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  soil  and 
the  sources  of  plant  food,  we  must  learn  some  of  the 
things  that  chemists  can  tell  us,  for  it  is  their  business 
to  study  the  composition  of  substances  and  the  changes 
that  take  place  in  them.  Chemists  have  found  out 
that  all  things  in  the  world  are  made  up  of  only  about 
eighty-five  different  elements. 

An  element  is  a  substance  that  cannot  be  separated 
into  any  two  or  more  things,  for  it  is  made  of  one 
thing  only.  Thus,  hydrogen  is  an  element  but  water 
is  not,  for  water  is  made  of  two  things,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen.  (Exp.  i.)  Iron,  also,  is  an  element, 
for  it  is  made  of  only  one  thing,  iron.  Iron  rust  is 
composed  of  iron  and  oxygen.  (Exp.  2.)  It  is  a  com- 
pound. A  compound  is  a  substance  made  of  two  or 
more  elements  united.  Thus,  water  is  a  compound, 
and  nearly  all  other  substances,  as  stones,  soil,  fer- 
tilizers, wood,  food,  and  even  our  own  bodies,  are  made 
up  of  compounds. 

Plant  food  materials ;  sources  of  supply.  There  are 
only  ten  elements  that  all  ordinary  farm  plants  must 
have  in  order  to  make  leaves,  stems,  roots,  seeds,  and 
everything  that  the  plant  produces.  These  are  as 
follows :  potassium,  calcium,  iron,  and  magnesium ; 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sulfur,  and  carbon;  hydrogen 

14 


The  Food  of  Plants 


and     oxygen.1 
nitrogen,     and 


Potassium, 
phosphorus 


H'.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  12.  A  pupils'  collection  of 
samples  of  the  necessary  plant-food 
elements. 


are  the  elements  most  likely 
to  be  deficient  in  any  soil, 
and  therefore  they  are  the 
ones  most  needed  as  ferti- 
lizers (Fig.  12). 

The  plant  takes  all  of  its 
carbon  and  some  of  its  oxy- 
gen from  the  air.  All  the 
rest  of  its  essential  food 
materials,  including  water, 
it  takes  through  its  roots 
from  the  ground.  (Exp.  3.) 
In  Figure  13  each  of  the 
side  roots  is  shown  absorb- 
ing one  of  the  food  materials,  and  the  taproot,  collecting 
water.  Of  course,  every  root  absorbs  all  of  these,  but 
the  picture  is  made  in  this  way  to  aid  the  memory. 
The  other  essential  food  material,  carbon,  is  shown 
coming  to  the  leaf  from  the  air.2 

However  necessary  the  food  elements  from  the  soil 
may  be  to  a  plant,  water  is  still  more  necessary,  for 
mineral  matter  cannot  be  absorbed,  except  in  solution. 
It  must  be  dissolved  in  water  before  it  can  be  drawn 
through  the  thin  membranes  of  the  root  hairs.  Not 
only  does  water  carry  food  materials  from  the  ground 

1  The  first  four  substances  named  are  metals ;    the  second  four  are 
non-metals ;  and  the  last  two  are  the  elements  of  which  water  is  composed. 

2  The  water,  carbon  dioxid,  and  minerals  that  a  plant  uses  are  not 
foods.    They  are  the  raw  materials  from  which  the  plant  manufactures 
the  foods  that  it  needs. 


How  both 
earth  and 
air  furnish 
food 
materials 


Water  a 

food  mate- 
rial and  a 
carrier  of 
food 


: 


i6 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


What  air 
does  for 
plants 


The  gases 


arbon  dioxid  gas 
from    the    air 


the  air 


into  the  plant  and  up  to  the  leaves,  but  the  two  ele- 
ments, hydrogen  and  oxygen,  of  which  water  is  com- 
posed, are  necessary 
in  building  up  the 
woody  fiber  and  other 
materials  of  which  the 
plant  is  made.  (Exp. 
4.)  Consequently, 
water  may  be  consid- 
ered a  food  material 

food. 

People  seldom  stop 
to  think  of  what  use 
the  air  may  be  to 
crops.  Yet  since  less 
than  half  of  the  plant 
stands  embedded  in 
soil,  and  since  the 
upper  portion  is  con- 
tinually bathed  in  air, 
it  is  only  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  air  is 
of  some  service.  In 

FIG.  13.      Diagram    to    show    how    a    plant  .     . 

supplies  its  needs  from  soil  and  air  through  One  respect  it  IS  more 

roots  and  leaves.      The  arrows  indicate   the  irnnortant    than     Soil 
course  of  the  sap  within  the  plant. 

It  supplies  the  plant 
with  far  more  nourishment  than  the  soil  does. 

Air  is  a  mixture  of  several  gases.  The  three  most 
important  gases  in  dry  air  are  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
carbon  dioxid.  About  one  fifth  of  dry  air  is  oxygen. 


The  Food  of  Plants 


Nearly  all  of  the  other  four  fifths  is  nitrogen.  A  very 
small  part  is  carbon  dioxid.  (Exp.  5.)  All  air  contains 
some  water,  and  this,  also,  is  in  an  invisible  gaseous  form 
called  water  vapor.  (Exp.  6.) 

Oxygen.  In  some  respects  oxygen  is  the  most  im-  The  process 
portant  of  the  gases  that  compose  the  air.  It  is  the  °fbreaihm9 
breath  of  life  for  animals  and  man.  When  we  inhale 
air,  oxygen  is  absorbed  from  i£  into  the  blood  passing 
through  the  lungs.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  combines 
chemically  with  the  impurities  of  the  blood,  slow  com- 
bustion takes  place,  and  carbon  dioxid  is  formed  all 
through  the  body.  This  gas  is  collected  in  the  lungs 
and  is  breathed  out  as  we  exhale.  If  for  any  reason  the 
lungs  do  not  get  a  sufficient  amount  of  oxygen,  or  if 
breathing  ceases  for  even  a  few  minutes,  the  system 
is  rapidly  poisoned,  and  death  results.  Plenty  of  air 
burns  up  the  poisons  that 
would  otherwise  accumulate 
in  the  blood.  (Exp.  7.) 

Plant  life,*  also,  depends 
on  oxygen  (Fig.  14  and  Exp. 
8).  The  leaves  absorb  it, 
and  the  roots  will  not  do 
well  unless  plenty  of  air  fills 
the  spaces  among  the  soil 
particles.  We  know  that  a 
plant  would  not  be  suffocated 
by  the  exclusion  of  air  for  a 
few  minutes,  as  an  animal  w.  T. 

WOUld   be  ;     but  if   a  plant  is     Fl«-  ^     There    «    air    enough    in 

either  of  these  bottles  for  a  few  seeds, 
Unable  tO  Obtain  OXygen  for     but  not  enough  for  many. 


The  effect 
of  lack   of 
air  upon 
plants 


i8 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


What 
plants 
secure  from 
carbon 
dioxid 


Why 

motion  of 
the  air  is 
necessary 


several  days  or  weeks,  it  dies  as  surely  as  does  an  animal 
that  is  deprived  of  air.  (Exp.  9.)  Though  plants 
absorb  oxygen  over  their  entire  surfaces,  they  obtain 
the  greater  part  of  their  supply  through  the  leaves  and 
roots.  Sometimes,  in  a  city  or  village,  the  leaves  of  a 
beautiful,  healthy-appearing  shade  tree  suddenly  begin 
to  wither  and  the  tree  dies.  This  is  usually  caused  by 
gas  escaping  from  the  mains.  The  gas  fills  the  air  spaces 
in  the  soil,  drives  out  the  soil  air,  and  the  tree  is  suffo- 
cated. 

Carbon  dioxid.  Though  oxygen  is  essential,  it  is 
not  required  in  nearly  such  quantity  for  the  manufacture 
of  foods  as  is  carbon  dioxid.  (Exp.  10.)  Carbon 
dioxid  gas  is  the  -material  from  which  plants  secure  the 
carbon  that  enters  into  the  making  of  carbohydrates 
(starch,  sugar,  woody  fiber,  etc.).  Carbon  dioxid  is 
also  essential  in  the  manufacture  of  the  proteins  and  oils 
found  in  plants.  Proteins  and  oils  are  for  the  most  part 
formed  within  the  seeds,  as  protein  in  beans,  and  oil 
in  cottonseed,  linseed,  and  olives.  (Carbon  dioxid  is 
often  spoken  of  as  "  carbonic  acid  gas,"  and  the  chemists 
abbreviate  the  name  by  writing  it  CO2,  the  characters 
indicating  that  the  gas  is  composed  of  one  part  carbon 
and  two  parts  oxygen.) 

There  is  so  little  carbon  dioxid  that  in  ten  thousand 
parts  of  air  only  about  three  parts  consist  of  this  gas. 
Nevertheless,  plants  feed  upon  it  so  hungrily  that  they 
succeed  in  absorbing  immense  quantities  of  it.  If  the 
air  were  perfectly  still,  plants  could  not  get  sufficient 
carbon  dioxid.  For  example,  a  three-hundred-bushel 
crop  of  potatoes  on  an  acre  uses  as  much  of  this  gas  as 


The  Food  of  Plants  19 

there  is  in  the  air  for  about  a  mile  in  height  above  the  How  much 
acre.     We  can  see  why  so  much  carbon  dioxid  must 


be  taken  in  by  plants  when  we  realize  that  charcoal,  a  cr°P 
which  is  the  part  that  turns  black  when  any  plant  sub- 
stance is  partially  burned,  consists  almost  purely  of 
carbon.  This  carbon,  of  course,  represents  the  carbon 
dioxid  that  the  plant  drew  from  the  air  through  the 
stomata,  the  little  openings  in  Jjie  leaves. 

Carbon  dioxid,  so  necessary  to  plant  life,  is  interesting  Common 
also  because  of  the  many  uses  to  which  it  is  put.     In  ^mbon 
the  manufacture  of  soda  water  and  all  other  carbonated  dloxid 
waters,   it  is   dissolved   in   the  liquid   under  pressure. 
When  the  pressure  is  removed  by  drawing  a  cork  or 
turning  a  faucet,  the  gas  bubbles  up,  causing  the  effer- 
vescence.    This   same   gas   is   sometimes   used   in   the 
manufacture  of  ice.     It  is  easily  compressed  to  liquid 
form,  and  when  the  liquefied  gas  evaporates  and  expands, 
it  draws  heat  away  from  the  water,  and  so  freezes  it. 
(Exp.   n.)     Bread  is  made  to  rise  by  carbon  dioxid. 
The  gas  is  generated  all   through  the  dough  by  the 
baking  powder  or  yeast,  and  the  bread  is  kept  expanded 
until  it  is  baked  so  that  it  cannot  "  fall  "  when  the  gas 
escapes. 

The  plant  life  of  the  world  daily  uses  thousands  of  How 
tons  of  carbon-dioxid  gas,  and  if  this  did  not  get  back  Dioxid  is 

into  the  air  the  supply  would  soon  be  exhausted  and  lost  from 

^  J  the  air 

nothing  could  grow.     There  are  three  ways  in  which 

the  gas  is  set  free  from  the  plant  substance  in  which 

it  has  been  imprisoned.     Plants  either  decay,  are  burned 

up,  or  are  eaten.     When  they  decay  the  carbon  changes  How  it  is 

slowly  to  carbon  dioxid  gas,  and  goes  back  into  the  air. 


2O  Nature- Study  Agriculture 

When  they  burn  the  change  is  more  rapid,  but  here 
again  the  carbon  forms  carbon  dioxid,  and  goes  into 
the  air  with  the  smoke.  When  plants  are  eaten,  the 
animals  that  eat  them  breathe  out  the  carbon  dioxid. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Hold  a  cold  flatiron  in  a  flame.     The  moisture  (a  com- 
pound) that  condenses  on  it  is  made  by  the  uniting  of  hydrogen 
from  the  fuel  with  oxygen  from  the  air. 

2.  With  a  knife  or  file  scratch  through  the  rust  on  a  piece 
of  old  iron.     Why  is  the  rust  only  on  the  surface  ? 

3.  Into  nine  small  bottles  (Fig.  12)  put  materials  to  repre- 
sent the  ten  elements  that  are  essential  plant  foods,  as  follows: 
(i)  Wood  ashes  (containing  potassium),  (2)  lime  or  plaster  (con- 
taining calcium),  (3)  iron,  (4)  a  little  flash-light  powder  (magne- 
sium), (5)  saltpeter  or  air  (containing  nitrogen),  (6)  matches  (a 
compound  of    phosphorus),    (7)   sulfur,    (8)  charcoal    (carbon), 
(9)  water  (hydrogen  and  oxygen). 

4.  Put  a  piece  of  perfectly  dry  wood  into  a  test  tube  and  heat 
it  over  an  alcohol  flame.     The  water  seen  collecting  in  the  tube 
is  made  by  the  breaking  down,  in  the  wood,  of  compounds  that 
contain  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

5.  Fill  a  glass  with  lime  water  and  let  it  stand  exposed  to  the 
air  for  several  days.     The  crust  that  forms  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  results  from  the  C02  gas  of  the  air  uniting  with  the  lime  in 
the  water,  making  a  thin  layer  of  limestone. 

6.  That  air  contains  water  vapor  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
moisture  from  the  air  will  condense  on  a  pitcher  of  ice  water. 

7.  Into  a   Mason   fruit  jar   put   about   two   teaspoonfuls   of 
sodium  peroxid   (from  a  drug  store).     Pour  water  upon  it  and 
cover  the  jar  loosely.     The  jar  will  soon  fill  with  oxygen.     If  a 
stick  with  a  glowing  ember  at  the  end  is  inserted  in  the  jar,  the 
ember  will  immediately  burst  into  flame. 

8.  To  show  that  seeds  will  not  grow  without  air,  put  a  few 
wheat  grains  into  a  large  bottle  and  half  fill  a  similar  bottle  with 


The  Food  of  Plants  21 

the  grains.    Add  moisture,  and  cork  the  bottles.    Why  are  the 
results  different  ?     (Fig.  14.) 

9.  Plant  seeds  in  the  same  way  in  two  cans  of  earth.  Keep  one 
can  swamped  with  water,  and  let  the  other  can  drain  through 
holes  in  the  bottom  so  that  the  earth  remains  only  moist.  Explain 
any  difference  in  the  growth  of  the  seeds. 

10.  Into  a  jar  put  a  spoonful  of  soda,  and  pour  a  little  vinegar 
or  other  acid  on  it.     The  gas  that  is  formed  is  carbon  dioxid.     It 
will  put  out  a  match  or  a  candle.     To  prove  that  the  gas  is  heavy, 
pour  some  of  it  from  the  jar  into  a*cup.     A  burning  match  put 
into  the  cup  will  go  out. 

11.  Put  a  little  gasoline  or  ether  on  the  hand.     Its  rapid  evapo- 
ration cools  the  skin.     The  far  more  rapid  evaporation  of  liquid 
carbon  dioxid  would  freeze  the  skin. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL  WATER 

The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic  nobility  rests  on 
possession  and  use  of  land. 

RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON 

The  im-  THE  soil  gives  anchorage  to  plants,  and  from  it  they 

^h^soiT  draw  their  entire  supply  of  water  and  a  large  part  of 
their  food.  To  the  farmer  a  study  of  the  soil  is  quite 
as  important  as  is  a  study  of  the  plants  themselves.  He 
should  know  something  about  the  way  in  which  soil 
was  formed,  of  what  elements  it  is  composed,  its  rela- 
tion to  water,  and  how  its  condition  can  be  modified 
the  better  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  plants  that  he  wishes 
to  grow. 

What  the  Soil,  from  the  agricultural  point  of  view,  is  the  surface 
material  of  the  earth  that  is  suitable  for  plants  to  grow 
in.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  composed  of  finely  divided 
mineral  matter  which  was  formed  by  the  crumbling  and 
wearing  away  of  rocks.  (Exp.  i.)  The  depth  of  the 
soil  may  be  only  a  few  inches  or  it  may  be  many  feet 
(Fig.  15),  but  if  we  dig  deep  enough  anywhere  we  come 

Bedrock  to  the  solid  rock  of  the  earth's  crust.  (Exp.  2.)  This 
bedrock  is  what  builders  are  after  when  they  dig  deep  to 
lay  the  foundations  for  a  heavy  building.  It  covers  the 
whole  earth. 

Soil-forming  agencies.     When  we  consider  that  soil 

was  made  chiefly  from  the  rocky  crust  of  the  earth, 

sometimes  even  from  volcanic  lava,  we  are  impressed 

„     with  the  idea  that  the  processes  of  soil  formation  must 

have  been  very  slow.     We  have  now  to  study  some  of 


The  -Soil  and  Soil  Water 


LOAHY 
SOIL 


CLAYEY 
5U660IL 


FIG.  15. 


ROCK 
ROCK 

U.  S.  D.  A. 

The  soil  and  the  material 
below  it. 


the  forces  of  Nature 
that  slowly  but  steadily 
worked  through  the  ages 
to  produce  the  soil  and 
to  distribute  it  as  we 
find  it  today  (Fig.  16). 

Probably  the  most 
DECOOPOSED  jmportant  of  the  soil- 
forming  processes  is 
chemical  action.  We 
are  all  familiar  with  the 
rusting  of  iron.  This  is 
chemical  action.  If  ex- 
posed to  the  weather,  the  brightly  polished  metal  sur- 
face soon  loses  its  luster  and  becomes  coated  with  rust. 
Rust  is  not  iron ;  it  is  a  compound  of  iron  and  oxygen, 
as  we  saw  in  Chapter  Two.  And  if  nothing  is  done 
to  protect  iron  from  the  weather,  the  process  of 
rusting  will  go  on  until  the  iron  is  entirely  con- 
sumed. In  a  similar  way  stones  that  are  on  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground  are  acted  upon  by  the 
weather  so  that  they  gradually  crumble  and  change 
into  new  substances.  (Exp.  3.)  An  example  of  this 
is  to  be  had  in  the  slow  change  of  the  rock  feldspar 
into  clay. 

The  effect  of  uneven  expansion  is  illustrated  when 
we  break  a  piece  of  glassware  by  pouring  hot  water  into 
it.  The  surface  in  contact  with  the  hot  water  expands 
more  than  the  rest  of  the  surface,  and  the  strain 
breaks  the  glass.  Stones  are  often  made  up  of  several 
kinds  of  minerals,  and  as  the  temperature  changes  from 


Chemical 
action 


Soil 

formation 
and  the 
rusting  of 
iron 
compared 


Changes  of 
temperature 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The 

breaking 

effect  of 

expansion 

and 

contraction 


FIG.  1 6.  Chemical  action,  changes  in  temperature,  vegetation,  and  the  action 
of  the  stream  are  all  at  work  in  forming  soil  in  this  Rocky  Mountain  canon. 

night  to  day  and  from  summer  to  winter,  the  uneven 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  different  mineral 
particles  tends  to  break  the  stones.  Nature's  process 
was  imitated,  we  are  told,  when  some  of  the  roads  were 
constructed  in  the  Yosemite  Valley :  fires  were  built 
upon  the  obsidian  rock  or  "  volcanic  glass  "  that  was 
to  be  removed;  then  cold  water  was  thrown  upon  the 
heated  surface,  cracking  it. 


The  Soil  and  Soil  Water  25 

Water,  too,  freezing  in  the  pores  and  cracks  of  rocks,  Ice 
breaks  them  as  it  would  break  a  pitcher.     This  is  be- 
cause water  expands  about  one  eleventh  of  its  volume 
when  it  freezes. 

The  roots  of  trees  and  of  smaller  vegetation  as  well  Root 
help  to  split  rocks  that  are  already  decomposing.     The  gro 
acids  produced  by  growing  roots  help  to  dissolve  rock 
particles,  and  thus  aid  in  soil  formation. 

In  the  bed  of  almost  any  stream  are  to  be  seen  smooth,  The 
rounded  pebbles  and  boulders.  These  have  come 
many  miles  from  among  the  hills  where  the  stream  has  streams 
its  source.  They  were  originally  rough,  angular  frag- 
ments of  rock,  but  they  lost  their  corners  by  being 
jostled  about  and  rolled  over  in  the  sandy  bed  of  the 
stream.  Figure  17  shows  fragments  of  brick,  glass,  stone, 
and  wood,  that  were  worn  smooth  by  this  process. 
Not  only  were  tiny  fragments  broken  from  the  pebbles 
in  the  making,  but  the  pebbles  in  turn  wore  the  stream 
bed,  gouging  it  out  deeper  and  deeper.  Thus  the  bits 
of  stone  acted  as  tools,  grinding  the  rocky  crust  of  the 
earth  into  soil. 

Distribution  of  soil :  the  action  of  water.     Running 
water  has  helped  in  the  distribution  of  soil,  as  well  as 
in   its   making.     Steep   mountains   and   hillsides   often  Why  soil 
are  almost  barren  of  soil,  not  because  there  never  was  Alley's  l 
any  there,  but  because  it  has  continually  been  carried 
into  the  valleys  below,  by  the  water  from  rains  and  by 
streams.     This  accounts  for  the  great  depth  of  valley 
soil. 

In  some  parts  of  our  country,  long  ago,  great  glaciers 
hundreds  of  feet  thick  slowly  slid  over  the  ground. 


26 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


The 

glaciers; 
what  they 
did 


W.  T.  Stilling 
FIG.  17.    Water- worn  pebbles.     Brick  and  glass  above ;  stone  and  wood  below. 

These  ice  sheets  were  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent, 
covering  a  large  part  of  what  is  now  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  Much  of  the  soil  of  our  country  owes 
its  formation,  or  at  least  its  distribution,  to  these  glaciers. 
They  acted  like  mammoth  plows,  scooping  out  deep 
channels  in  some  places,  and  piling  up  great  ridges  of 
earth  and  rock  in  other  places.  Their  action  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  a  carpenter's  gouge,  for  at  the 
bottom  of  these  moving  masses  were  fastened  stones 
which  cut  their  way  through  the  underlying  earth, 
leaving  marks  still  plainly  visible.  The  geologist  Dana 
estimates  that  the  region  south  of  Hudson  Bay,  where 
the  ice  sheet  began  to  form,  must  originally  have  been 
from  three  to  five  thousand  feet  higher  than  it  is  at 


The  Soil  and  Soil  Water  27 

present.     From  this  great  watershed  the  ice  sheet  moved  Where  the 
slowly  but  irresistibly  down  into  what  is  now  the  United  camT/rom 
States.     The  Middle  West  and  the  North  owe  much* 
of  their  fertility  and  depth  of  soil  to  the  excellent  work 
done  by  this  great  ice  mill.     The  grist  it  ground  was 
rock,  but  the  soil  that  resulted  has  produced  the  grist 
for  many  a  flour  mill  which  at  present  rumbles  in  that 
country. 

Constituents  of  the  soil.  The  mineral  particles  of 
the  soil  are  classified  in  accordance  with  their  fineness, 
as  gravel,  sand,  silt,  and  clay  (Fig.  18).  All  four  come 
from  the  same  source,  rock,  and  they  differ  from  one 
another  only  in  the  size  of  the  particles  composing  them. 
If  twenty-five  grains  of  the  coarsest  sand  are  laid  side 
by  side,  they  reach  an  inch.  Anything  coarser  than 
that  is  called  gravel.  It  would  require  five  hundred  The  size  oj 
grains  of  the  finest  sand  to  extend  one  inch.  Silt  grains 
are  so  small  that  anywhere  from  five  hundred  to  five 
thousand  would  be  needed  to  reach  an  inch.  Any  soil 
in  which  the  grains  are  smaller  than  this  is  clay.  (Exp.  4 
and  Exp.  5.)  In  ordinary  garden  soil  there  are  about 
a  hundred  billion  grains  to  each  ounce.  Besides  the  Humus 
mineral  matter,  gravel,  sand,  silt,  and  clay,  there  is 
present  in  all  soils  a  small  quantity  of  partially  decayed 
organic  matter,  chiefly  of  vegetable  origin.  This  is 


o 

4  56 

FIG.  18.     Comparative  sizes  of  soil  grains:    i,  medium  sand;    2,  fine  sand; 
3,  very  fine  sand ;  4,  silt;  5,  fine  silt;  6,  clay.     (All  enlarged  about  100  times.) 


28  Nature- Study  Agriculture 

called  "  humus."     Most  soils  contain  a  mixture  of  the 
five  different  kinds  of  particles.     (Exp.  6.) 

An  '  The  following  illustration  may  help  us  to  understand 

riwoftiie     the  na^ure  °f  the  soil.     "  Let  us  in  imagination  suppose 

s°il  a  cubic  inch  of  ordinary  garden  soil  to  be  enlarged  to 

a  cubic  mile  —  a  magnification  which  no  microscope 

would  be  able  to  give.     Then  we  should  see  it  composed 

mainly  of  a  mass  of  rocks  varying  from  several  feet  in 

diameter  to  the  size  of  a  pea  and  smaller. 

"  Each  stone  would  be  seen  to  be  covered  with  a  film 
of  water,  and  some  of  the  smaller  spaces  would  be  full 
of  water.  Larger  spaces  would  contain  air. 

"  Scattered  throughout  the  rock  mass  we  should  see 
quantities  of  water-soaked  decaying  vegetation,  like 
rotting  logs  in  a  mass  of  rock  and  gravel.  Winding  in 
and  out  among  the  stones  and  penetrating  the  spongy 
water-soaked  humus  is  a  network  of  plant  roots,  push- 
ing aside  the  stones  as  they  grow  longer,  and  absorbing 
the  water  which  fills  the  small  spaces  and  with  which 
the  decaying  matter,  the  humus,  is  saturated."  1 
Clay,  sand,  Soil  textures.  Like  cloth,  a  particular  soil  may  be 
Dam  said  to  be  either  of  coarse  or  fine  texture.  Pure  clay 
has  a  texture  too  fine  to  allow  the  easy  circulation  of 
air  and  moisture,  and  it  is  too  sticky  to  work.  Pure 
sand  is  of  so  coarse  a  texture  that  water  drains  out  of 
it  too  easily,  leaving  it  dry,  and  plants  find  little  nutri- 
ment in  it.  A  soil  that  has  sufficient  clay  to  bind  the 
particles  together  somewhat  and  sufficient  sand  and 
humus  to  keep  it  from  being  too  dense  and  sticky  is 
called  "  loam."  Loams  are  said  to  be  sandy,  or  clayey, 

1  W.  J.  Spillman. 


The  Soil  and  Soil  Water  29 

depending  on  the  relative  proportions  of  sand  and  clay.  How  lex- 


The  texture  of  some  soils  can  be  improved  by  adding 


clay,  of  others  by  adding  sand,  and  of  still  others  by 
adding  silt.  Humus  also  greatly  modifies  the  texture; 
it  improves  both  sandy  and  clayey  soils.  The  texture 
of  all  soils  is  greatly  improved  by  tillage,  if  the  culti- 
vation is  done  when  the  ground  is  neither  too  wet  nor 
too  dry. 

A  "  heavy  "  soil  is  one  containing  so  much  clay  that  Heavy  and 
it  is  sticky  and  hard  to  work.  Sandy  soils  are  called  Ii0ht  S0lls 
11  light  "  because  they  are  easy  to  work.  By  weight, 
sand  is  heavier  than  clay,  a  cubic  foot  of  sandy  soil 
weighing  about  a  hundred  pounds,  while  the  same 
amount  of  clayey  soil  weighs  about  seventy-five  pounds. 
Clay  weighs  less  than  sand,  not  because  of  being  made 
of  any  lighter  material,  but  because  the  total  air  space 
in  dry  clay  is  greater  than  the  air  space  in  sand.  About 
half  of  the  volume  of  clay  soil  is  made  up  of  pores  filled 
with  air. 

Heavy  soils  are  usually  richer  and  more  moist  than  Their  rela- 
light  soils,  for  they  have  more  water-holding  capacity  ' 
and  do  not  allow  the  humus  to  escape  so  readily  as  do 
light,  sandy  soils. 

Subsoil.     The  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  The 
six  or  eight  inches  (about  as  deep  as  the  plow  goes)  has  ^weento 


a  darker  color  and  contains  more  humus  and  other  plant  S°M  ar}d 
food  than  is  found  below  this  depth.  If  the  plow  is 
made  to  go  deeper,  it  brings  up  sticky  material  that 
has  not  been  exposed  to  the  weather  and  is  therefore 
not  so  well  suited  to  growing  plants.  (Exp.  7.)  This 
under  layer  of  poorer  soil  is  called  "  subsoil."  Deep 


30  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

0 

plowing  is  to  be  recommended ;  but  the  plow  should 
be  allowed  to  go  only  a  little  deeper  each  year,  so  that 
not  enough  subsoil  will  be  brought  to  the  surface  at 
once  to  injure  the  crop.  The  subsoil  when  exposed  to 
the  air  gradually  becomes  good  soil. 

Why  dry  In  arid  regions  there  is  usually  little  difference  in  the 
nolsubsoiie  s°il  f°r  several  feet  down,  for  there  is  little  clay  and 
the  soil,  being  dry,  admits  air.  The  West  has,  as  a 
rule,  no  subsoil  within  reach  of  the  plow.  Sometimes 
soil  that  is  taken  from  a  deep  excavation  in  a  dry  region 
is  spread  upon  the  surface,  where  it  will  support  good 
crops  even  during  the  first  season. 

Soil  water.     The  presence  of  water  in  the  soil  is  one 
of  the  most  important  factors  with  which  the  farmer 
has  to  deal.     As  rain  falls,  it  is  absorbed  by  the  soil; 
Rainfall       but  different  soils  absorb  different  amounts  (Fig.   19). 
By  "  annual  rainfall  "  is  meant  the  depth  to  which  the 
ground  in  a  particular  locality  would  be  covered  in  a 
year  if  none  of  the  rain  water  ran  off  or  soaked  in  or 
evaporated.     (Exp.  8.)     By  adding  the  numbers  repre- 
senting annual  rainfall  for  a  series  of  years  and  dividing 
the  sum  by  the  number  of  years,  we  obtain  what  is 
Abilities  of  called   the   "  average   annual   rainfall."     A   sandy   soil 
absorb  and  absorbs  the  rainfall  more  readily  than  does  a  clay  soil ; 
hold  water    but  clay  can  hold  considerably  more  water  than  sand 
can.     (Exp.   9.)     The  more  humus   any  soil  contains, 
the  greater  the  quantity  of  water  it  can  hold,  and  there- 
fore the  longer  it  will  keep  moist  in  dry  weather.    Sandy 
soil  with  little  humus  dries  out  very  quickly.     We  shall 
now  see  why  these  soils  act  so  differently. 

If  a  small  stone  is  immersed  in  water  and  then  lifted 


The  Soil  and  Soil  Water 


H'.  T.  Stilling 
FIG.  19.     Measuring  the  water-holding  power  of  different  soils. 

into  the  air,  it  will  be  covered  with  a  film  of  water  so  How  water 

...  .      ,  .  ,          j    w  held  in 

thick  that  a  few  drops  quickly  run  to  the  lower  side  and  ^  son 

drop  off  (Fig.  20).  The  remaining  water  is  so  firmly 
held  that  the  force  of  gravity  is  not  strong  enough  to 
pull  it  loose  from  the  rock.  Now  if  the  rock  is  allowed 
to  dry  in  the  sunshine  until  no  more  moisture  is  visible, 
there  still  clings  to  it  a  thin,  invisible  film  of  water. 
This  last  trace  of  water  can  be  removed  only  by  heating 
the  rock  to  several  degrees  above  the  boiling  point  of 
water. 

Since  the  soil  is  composed  mainly  of  small  rock  parti-  Free  water 
cles,  each  one  of  these  particles  behaves  toward  water 
just  as  the  rock  does.     If  soil  is  very  wet,  a  certain  waier 
amount  of  moisture  drains  down  from  one  particle  to 
another  by  the  force  of  its  own  weight.     This  is  called 
"  free  water."     As  the  stone  that  has  been  wet  holds 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


W.  T.  SkiUinO 

FIG.  20.     Free  water  and  capillary  water  on  a  stone.     Invisible  water  covers 
the  top  of  the  stone. 

enough  water  to  keep  it  moist,  so  the  soil  particles  hold 
moisture  which  clings  to  their  surfaces  and  fills  the  small 
spaces  between  them.  This  is  called  "  capillary  water," 
and  the  force  that  holds  the  water  is  called  "  capillary 
force."  This  force  is  named  from  the  Latin  word 
"  capilla,"  meaning  a  hair,  because  it  acts  best  in  very 
narrow  spaces.  (Exp.  10.)  Capillary  force  not  only 
makes  a  film  of  water  cling  to  the  particles,  but  it  draws 
the  water  up  toward  the  drier  surface  of  the  ground. 
It  is  capillarity  that  draws  oil  up  in  a  wick,  and  that 
causes  water  to  rise  in  a  very  slender  glass  tube  when  we 
dip  one  end  of  the  tube  in  water  (Fig.  21).  Capillarity, 
too,  helps  the  sap  to  rise  in  the  stems  or  trunks  of  plants. 


The  Soil  and  Soil  Water 


33 


W.  T.  SKilling 


FIG.  21.     Capillary  action  under  different  conditions. 

If  a  dry  stone  is  partly  immersed  in  water,  the 
moisture  will  be  seen  to  creep  up  a  little  way  above 
the  water  level.  (Exps.  n,  12,  13.)  If  a  brick  is  set 
on  end  in  a  shallow  pan  of  water,  the  water  will  in 
time  draw  to  the  top.  Because  the  brick  is  porous, 
water  can  go  up  through  the  many  capillary  spaces 
within  it  much  better  than  it  can  rise  on  the  outside  of  a 
stone.  Similarly,  the  small  spaces  in  fine-grained  soil 
like  clay  draw  up  and  hold  considerable  water,  and  the 
larger  spaces  in  coarse-grained  soil  like  sand  remain 
empty.  So  sand  will  not  hold  nearly  so  much  water  as 
clay. 

A  most  important  water-holding  constituent  of  the 
soil  is  humus.  This  partly  decayed  matter  not  only 
holds  water  on  its  surface  and  in  the  small  spaces  be- 


Examples 

of 

capillarity 


What 
happens  to 
water  in 
clay  and  in 
sand 


How  humus 
holds  water 


34  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

tween  particles  as  the  mineral  elements  of  the  soil  do, 
but  the  water  enters  its  very  substance  and  saturates 
it  like  a  sponge.  Great  quantities  of  water  are  held 
in  this  way  if  humus  is  abundant,  and  such  water  is 
easily  given  up  to  plants.  Keeping  the  ground  well 
stored  with  humus  is,  then,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  all  good  farm  practices. 

Where  Alkali  and  other  soils.     In  all  soils  there  is  a  continual 

comes  from  weathering  or  decomposition  of  the  soil  grains,  and 
soluble  substances  (one  of  which  is  common  salt)  are 
always  being  formed.  Where  the  annual  rainfall  is 
large,  these  substances  are  washed  out,  conducted  to 
streams  and  rivers,  and  carried  to  the  sea.  (That  is 
why  the  sea  is  salt.)  In  those  regions  where  the  annual 
rainfall  is  small,  as  in  parts  of  the  West  and  the  South- 
west, the  salts  that  form  are  left  in  the  ground.  When 
abundant,  they  are  spoken  of  as  "  alkali  "  and  the  soil 
is  called  "  alkali  soil."  In  some  places  there  is  so  much 
alkali  that  crops  will  not  grow  at  all. 

The  cause  In  the  Central  and  Eastern  states,  sour  soil  is  often 
tti^remedy  met  with-  Sourness  is  due  to  acids  that  accumulate  in 
the  soil  when  it  lacks  lime.  Lime  neutralizes  the  acid 
as  soda  neutralizes  the  acid  of  sour  milk  used  in  cooking. 
So  adding  lime  is  the  remedy  for  a  sour  soil.  In  some 
sections  where  the  heavy  rainfall  has  dissolved  the  natural 
lime  and  washed  it  out  of  the  ground,  liming  will  some- 
times double  the  crop. 

Color  of  soil  A  black  or  very  dark  soil  is  universally  regarded  as  a 
good  soil,  and  it  usually  is  such,  the  dark  color  being  due 
to  an  abundant  supply  of  humus.  A  light-gray  soil  in- 
dicates a  deficiency  in  humus.  - 


I 

The  Soil  and  Soil  Water  35 

The  temperature  of  the  soil  plays  a  very  important   Tempera- 

f  »    T   i  ,      i  -i  lure;  effect 

part  in  the  growing  of  crops.  A  light,  dry  soil  warms  Of  water 
up  earlier  in  the  spring  than  heavy,  wet  soil  does.  A 
soil  that  contains  too  much  water  is  always  cold  for  two 
reasons.  It  takes  about  live  times  as  much  heat  to 
warm  water  as  it  does  to  warm  dry  soil  (Exp.  15),  and 
evaporation  has  a  cooling  effect,  as  we  saw  in  Chapter 
Two.  If  a  field  is  sloping  so  a§  to  be  well  drained  and 
the  surface  is  kept  loose  and  dry,  the  soil  will  be  the 
warmer. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Examine  a  little  garden  soil  with  a  hand  lens,  or  preferably 
with  a  microscope. 

2.  Dig  a  hole  through  the  soil  to  bedrock  if  you  can,  or  exam- 
ine the  soil  at  the  side  of  a  road  cut.     Can  you  distinguish  soil 
and  subsoil? 

*  3.  Collect  decomposed  rock  that  has  been  softened  or  at  least 
stained  by  the  action  of  the  weather.  Compare  with  an  old  break 
in  iron. 

4.  Make  several  sieves  about  six  inches  square,  with  the  sides 
of  wood  and  the  bottoms  of  gauze  wire.     Let  the  different  meshes 
vary  in  diameter  from  the  smallest  mesh  obtainable  to  one  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     After  crushing  all  lumps  in  about 
a  quart  of  dry  ga"rden  soil,  sift  it  thoroughly,  using  each  sieve  in 
succession,  beginning  with  the  coarsest.     Put  the  different  sif tings 
into  separate  glasses.     Examine  the  samples  carefully  with  the 
naked  eye  and  with  a  lens.  t 

5.  Put  a  handful  of  soil  into  a  tall  glass  jar  of  water.     Stir 
thoroughly,  and  then  watch  the  sorting  action  of  water  as  settling 
takes  place. 

6.  Collect  in  labeled  bottles  as  many  kinds  of  soil  as  possible. 
Note  on  each  label  whether  or  not  vegetable  growth  seemed  good 
in  the  locality  from  which  the  particular  soil  was  taken. 


36  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

7.  Plant  seeds  in  two  pots,  the  first  one  filled  with  earth  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  other  filled  with  earth  taken 
from  a  depth  greater  than  the  plow  ever  reaches.     Explain  the 
results. 

8.  Set  out  a  vessel  with  straight  sides  and  measure  the  first 
rainfall.     If  there  is  snow,  melt  it  before  measuring. 

9.  To  find  how  much  water  different  kinds  of  soil  are  able 
to  hold,  proceed  as  follows :   Wrap  a  string  around  several  times 
near  the  bottom  of  a  large  bottle.     Wet  the  string  with  kerosene, 
and  after  setting  it  on  fire  turn  the  bottle  slowly  till  the  fire  goes 
out.    Then  put  the  bottle  into  water,  and,  if  necessary,  tap  it 
with  a  hammer.     It  will  break  at  the  heated  line,  because  of  the 
strain  due  to  the  sudden  cooling  and  contraction.     Tie  cloth  over 
the  mouth  of  the  bottle  and  fill  with  dry  sand.     Fill  several  other 
such  bottles  with  clay,  loam,  silt,  etc.  (Fig.  19).     Find  how  much 
water  each  will  hold  without  any  draining  through  into  a  glass  be- 
low.    (Tin  cans  with  holes  punched  in  the  bottoms  will  do  instead 
of  bottles.) 

10.  Put  several  glass  tubes  of  different  bores  in  a  cup  of  water. 
Notice  that  the  smaller  the  tube  the  higher  the  water  is  drawn  by 
capillary  force  (Fig.  21). 

V     ii.   Set  a  brick  in  shallow  water  and  watch  the  capillary  rise 
of  the  water  (Fig.  21). 

12.  Lay   two   pieces   of   glass   together   (Fig.    21).     Separate 
them  on  one  side  by  putting  a  match  between  them.     Dip  one 
end  of  the   glasses   in   water  and  observe  that   near  the   side 
where  they  touch  the  water  is  drawn  higher  than  on  the  other 
side. 

13.  Set  two  glasses  side  by  -side,  one  full  of  water,  the  other 
empty.     Connect  the  two  by  a  lamp  wick  (Fig.  21). 

14.  Set  a  pan  of  water  and  a  pan  of  sand  in  the  hot  sun  or  near 
a  stove.    Which  warms  first  ? 


The  Soil  and  Soil  Water  37 

References 

"Soil  Fertility."     Farmers'  Bulletin  257. 

NOTE.  The  above  bulletin  and  others  referred  to  throughout  this 
book  may  be  secured  free  by  sending  a  post-card  request  to  the  Division 
of  Publications,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.  Or 
the  request  may  be  sent  to  your  senator  or  representative  in  Congress. 
In  case  the  free  supply  through  these  sources  is  exhausted,  you  can 
always  secure  single  copies  for  five  cents  from  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

SOIL   FERTILITY   AND   ITS   PRESERVATION 

...  If  vain  our  toil, 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil. 

ALEXANDER  POPE 

Worn-out          "  A  RICH  soil  makes  a  prosperous  people."     This  is 

a  very  true  saying,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  keep  a  soil  rich. 

There  are  many  farms,  especially  in  the  eastern  part  of 

the  United  States,  which  once  produced  abundant  crops, 

but  which   are   now  practically   deserted  because   the 

fertility  of  their  soils  has  become  so  low  that  the  crops 

which  can  be  raised  are  too  poor  to  be  profitable.     Such 

farms  are  called  "  worn-out  farms."    In  the  Middle  West, 

where  the  land  has  been  brought  under  cultivation  more 

recently,  the  soil  is  still  rich  and  the  crops  are  abundant ; 

but  these  farms  will  also  become  worn  out  in  time,  unless 

proper  methods  of  farming  are  employed  (Fig.  22). 

What  the          The  fertility  of  wild  land.     For  perhaps  thousands  of 

Hitlers          years  before   the   coming   of   white   settlers,   luxuriant 

found  crops  of  wild  prairie  grass  grew  each  year  upon  the  plains 

of  the  Middle  West,  the  soil  probably  becoming  better, 

not  poorer.     What  grass  was  not  eaten  by  the  buffaloes 

and  antelopes  was  swept  away  by  prairie  fires  after  it 

The  effect  of  became  dry.     When  settlers  first  began  to  break  sod, 

cropping        ^^    found    ^    goil    bjack    with    rjchness      Whenever 

sufficient  rain  fell,  abundant  crops  were  secured.  *  Before 
many  years,  however,  farmers  began  to  find  their  crops 
falling  off  and  the  land  requiring  fertilizers. 

How  could  this  land  produce  a  natural  crop  for  cen- 
turies without  loss  of  fertility,  while  it  showed  the  effect 

38 


Soil  Fertility  and  Its  Preservation  39 


FIG.  22.     Hillside  land  that  once  was  farmed.     The  topsoil  is  rapidly  being 
carried  away  by  rains. 

of  artificial  cropping  in  a  few  years  ?  An  answer  to  this 
question  may  suggest  a  mode  of  farming  more  in  keep- 
ing with  the  ways  of  Nature,  which  will  not  deplete  the 
soil. 

If  it  were    universally    true    that  a  long-used  field  How  we 
became  valueless,  the  prospect  before  us  would  be  dis-  farmlands 
couraging.     But  there  are  regions  which  under  careful  may  be  kept 
management  have  been  producing  good  yields  for  many 
centuries.     Indeed,  some  of  the  worn-out  farms  of  the 
East  are  now,  with  modern  scientific  treatment,  being 
made  profitable  again. 

Three  reasons  can  be  assigned  for  the  continued 
fertility  of  the  Western  prairies.  First,  the  sod,  formed 
by  a  close  mesh  of  grass  roots,  served  as  a  sponge  to  hold 


How  wild 
grass 
improved 
the  soil 
on  the 
plains 


Leaching 


What 
water 
removes 


40  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

the  water,  and  it  prevented  heavy  rains  from  washing 
the  nourishment  from  the  soil.  Second,  as  the  roots 
decayed  to  make  room  for  new  ones,  an  abundance  of 
humus  was  formed.  (Exp.  i.)  It  is  this  humus  that 
gives  the  characteristic  dark  color  to  prairie  soil.  Third, 
the  grass,  most  of  which  was  burned  away  each  year,  was 
not  altogether  lost,  for  the  mineral  food  material  that  it 
had  taken  for  growth  was  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form 
of  ashes. 

The  loss  of  fertility  in  cultivated  soil.  Cultivated 
soil  is  more  exposed  to  the  action  of  rain  than  is  land 
that  is  covered  with  sod.  The  more  soluble  substances 
in  cultivated  soil  go  into  solution  and  are  carried  away. 
This  process  is  called  "  leaching."  If  we  should  mix 
a  pound  of  sugar  or  salt  with  the  surface  soil  on  a  very 
small  area,  a  few  heavy  rains  would  be  sufficient  to 
remove  it  almost  entirely.  A  pound  of  marble  dust  or 
other  insoluble  substance  would,  on  the  contrary, 
remain  for  years.  Certain  plant  foods,  as  compounds 
containing  nitrogen,  are  as  soluble  as  salt  and  sugar, 
and  for  that  reason  they  leach  out  of  the  soil  very 
readily,  especially  when  no  crop  is  growing  to  absorb 
and  hold  them. 

To  find  out  what  element  of  the  soil's  strength  and 
how  much  of  it  is  being  wasted,  it  is  necessary  to  col- 
lect samples  of  the  drainage  water  and  evaporate  it 
completely.  Although  this  water  may  be  perfectly 
clear  and  colorless  before  evaporation,  some  solid  ma- 
terial will  remain.  (Exp.  2.)  This  residue  may  be 
examined  chemically  to  see  of  what  it  is  composed.  By 
examining  the  water  of  the  Mississippi  it  has  been  found 


Soil  Fertility  and  Its  Preservation  41 

that  that  river  carries  sediment  and  dissolved  mineral 
matter  enough  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  every  year  to  make 
a  block  of  earth  a  mile  square  and  about  three  hundred 
feet  high,  if  it  could  all  be  collected  in  one  place. 

The  sod  of  the  prairies  is  an  ideal  place  for  the  forma-   The  loss  of 
tion  of  humus.     But  when  the  prairies  are  cultivated,  j^us> 
the  sod  is  destroyed ;    and  if  manure  or  other  humus-  avoided 
making  material  is  not  added,  the  humus  will  gradually 
be  used  up,  thus  reducing  the  soil  fertility.     An  excellent 
practice  is  to  raise  a  crop  of  clover  or  timothy  hay  every 
few  years,  thus  letting  the  land  form  a  sod  and  so  regain, 
to  some  extent,  the  condition  it  had  in  its  wild  state. 

Cultivated  fields  suffer  a  loss  of  fertility  that  does  not  An 

•  »    j  i 

occur  in  wild  lands,  through  the  annual  removal  of  crops.  foJJ00 
The  most  fertile  lands  become  worn  out  by  cropping 
unless  vegetable  matter  and  food  materials  are  returned 
to  them.  In  time  the  vegetable  matter  that  new  soil 
usually  has  in  abundance  disappears,  and  the  supply  of 
mineral  food  materials  that  the  plants  must  have  becomes 
almost  exhausted.  This  loss  cannot  be  entirely  avoided, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  fertilizers.  These  will 
be  specially  considered  in  Chapter  Twelve. 

Keeping  up  fertility.     With  a  little  care  the  farmer  Soil 
can  return  to  his  soil  a  large  part  of  the  annual  crop. 
Straw  is  almost  valueless  as  feed   and   is  easily  given  not  be 
back  by  plowing  under.     Leaves  that  fall  about  a  tree 
or  under  a  rosebush  should  be  kept  moist  and  be  dug 
into  the  soil.     They  will  give  back  what  the  plant  drew 
from  the  ground  in  making  them,   and  will,   besides, 
greatly  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  by  in- 
creasing its  humus. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Caver 
crops 


Making 

weeds 

useful 


Why  stock 


FIG.  23.     Plowing  under  a  cover  crop  to  enrich  the  soil. 


It  is  frequently  advisable  to  raise  a  quick-growing  crop 
for  the  purpose  of  plowing  it  under  while  it  is  still  green 
(Figs.  23,  24,  25,  and  26).  This  is  called  a  "cover  crop  "  or 
a  "green  manure  crop."  It  is  best  not  to  plow  too  deep 
when  turning  the  cover  crop  under,  because  the  vegetable 
matter  will  not  decay  without  air  from  the  surface  ;  about 
four  or  five  inches  is  usually  the  right  depth.  Weeds 
may  be  treated  in  this  way,  as  they  are  often  rich  in  plant 
food.  The  best  time  for  plowing  them  under  is  when 
they  are  in  bloom,  before  they  go  to  seed. 

If,   instead   of   selling   all   of   his  crops,   the  farmer 

would  feed    to  livestock  a  Part>   at  least>  of   what   he 
raises,  he  could  return  to  the  soil,  in  stable  manure, 

much  of  the  plant-food  material  that  is  removed  by 
crops. 


Soil  Fertility  and  Its  Preservation 


43 


Natural  processes  that  enrich  the   soil.     There   are  Rain  and 
several  ways  in  which  Nature  constantly  adds  to  the  weaiherin9 
soil  some  of  the  elements  that  it  needs  most.     One  of 
these  elements  is  nitrogen.     The  atmosphere  contains  a 
small  amount  of  ammonia,  a  compound  that  is  rich  in 
nitrogen ;    and  every  time  it  rains  or  snows,  some  of 
this  ammonia  is  brought  down  to  the  earth  and  added  to 
the  soil.     The  weathering  process  that  is  continually 
going  on  in  loose,  cultivated  soil  is  always  making  soluble 
new  supplies  of  the  food  elements  already  in  the  ground. 
Wind  and  running  water  carry  dust  and  earth  from  place   Wind  and 
to  place,  and  these  often  add  quite  materially  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.     But  the  most  interesting  process 


1700 


220Q    Ib. 


No  fertilizer 


1OOOO    Ib. 


No    fertilizer 


Nitrate 


Legume 

FIGS.  24,  25,  and  26.  An  experiment  station  in  California  got  the  above  yields 
per  acre  from  each  of  three  similar  plots.  The  first  plot  was  not  fertilized, 
the  second  was  fertilized  with  nitrate  of  soda,  and  the  third  was  fertilized  by 
growing  a  legume  crop  (as  clover)  and  plowing  it  under. 


44 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  work 
of  bacteria 

The 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  27.     Peanut  plant,  a  legume.    After  the  flowers  of  the  peanut  are  fertilized, 
their  stems  (peduncles)  bend  over  and  the  pods  develop  in  the  ground. 

of  soil  renewal  is  the  one  that  depends  upon  the  action 

of  bacteria.    The  subject  is  so  important  that  we  need 
^  consider  it  at  some  length. 

Nitrogen  is  more  likely  than  any  other  substance  to 
be  deficient,  in  soils,  and,  as  plant  growth  is  so  utterly 
dependent  upon  this  food,  any  means  of  supplying  it  or 
retaining  it  should  not  be  neglected. 

A  question  As  soon  as  chemists  began  to  investigate  the  materials 
of  which  soil  is  composed,  they  found  that  rocks,  which 
by  their  disintegration  produce  soil,  contain  almost 
no  nitrogen.  An  analysis  of  vegetable  materials  grown 
upon  the  soil,  especially  the  grains  and  all  seeds,  revealed 
quantities  of  nitrogen  in  their  composition.  Where  did 
the  plants  get  it? 


Soil  Fertility  and  Its  Preservation 


45 


Early  experiments  seemed  to  show  that  the  plants 
took  no  nitrogen  from  the  air,  —  that  all  they  got  came 
from  the  humus  (decaying  vegetable  matter)  in  the 
soil.  But  when  plants  of  the  legume  family  were  tested, 
it  was  discovered  that  they  would  grow  about  as  well 
in  ground  containing  no  nitrogen  as  in  rich  soil.  (The 
legumes  produce  their  seeds  in  pods  like  bean  or  pea 
pods.)  In  1888,  the  scientist  Helrigel  found  that  upon 
the  roots  of  such  plants 
live  multitudes  of  bac- 
teria which  enable  the 
plant  to  secure  its  nitro- 
gen from  the  air  (Figs. 
27  and  28).  These 
"  nitrogen-fixing  bac- 
teria "  take  the  nitrogen 
gas  from  the  air  that  is 
in  the  soil  and  unite  it 
with  oxygen  and  other 
elements.  Then  the 
plant  can  use  it  as  food 
material.  The  process 
of  making  nitrogen 
unite  with  other  ele- 
ments is  called  "  fixation 
of  nitrogen." 

If  the  student  will 
pull  up  and  examine  the 
roots  of  clover,  peas, 
beans,  alfalfa,  peanuts, 
or  any  other  plant  be- 


Why 
plants 
of  the 
legume 
family   can 
grow  in 
poor  soil 


Nitrogen' 

fixing 

bacteria 


The 
nodules 


U.S.D.A. 

FIG.  28.     A  young  red  clover  plant,  an- 
other legume,  showing  nodules  on  roots. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


A  partner- 
ship that 
is  mutually 
helpful 


How  the 
farmer  may 
help  nature 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  29.    Nodules  on  the  roots  of  a  peanut  plant.     Each  nodule  is  the  home 
of  a  colony  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 

longing  to  the  legume  family,  he  will  find  upon  the 
roots  little  swellings,  or  "  nodules,"  about  as  big  as 
pinheads  (Figs.  29  and  30).  It  is  in  the  nodules  that 
colonies  of  the  nitrifying  bacteria  live,  and  these  can 
be  seen  with  the  aid  of  a  powerful  microscope.  The 
bacteria  draw  much  of  their  own  nourishment  from  the 
plant  but  do  it  no  harm,  and  they  give  to  the  plant  the 
nitrogen  that  it  could  not  get  alone.  (Exp.  3.)  Nitro- 
gen thus  taken  from  the  air  is  added  to  the  ground  when 
the  plant  decays. 

Now  comes  the  farmer's  part  in  this  process.  If 
he  plants  vetches,  clover,  field  peas,  or  some  such  legUv 
minous  crop,  and  plows  it  under,  he  may  expect  the  sue 


Soil  Fertility  and  Its  Preservation  47 


ceeding  crop  to  be  abun- 
dant, for  this  crop  will 
use  the  nitrogen  that 
has  been  gathered  by 
the  green  manuring 
crop.  (Exp.  4.) 

It  has  been  found  that 
inoculating  a  field  with 
the  right  kind  of  bac- 
teria is  sometimes  of 
considerable  benefit  to 
a  leguminous  crop.  This 
is  done  in  two  ways. 
Either  (i)  a  few  hundred 
pounds  of  the  topsoil 
from  a  field  where  the 
same  crop  has  been 

growing  may  be  added  to  each  acre  of  the  new  field ; 
or  (2)  the  seeds  to  be  planted  may  be  soaked  in  water 
to  which  a  "  pure  culture  "  of  the  bacteria  has  been 
added  (Fig.  31).  When  the  seeds  germinate,  the 
bacteria  will  be  near  at  hand  to  work  upon  the  roots. 
Cultures  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  for  various  legumi- 
nous crops  are  on  the  market,  and  they  may  also  be 
secured  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  at  Wash- 
ington. It  is  not  always  necessary  to  inoculate  a  new 
field,  for  the  needed  bacteria  may  already  be  there  living 
on  wild  clover  or  other  legumes. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  bacteria  that  make  nitrogen 
available  for  crop  plants.  They  do  not  live  upon  the 
roots  of  legumes  but  feed  upon  dead  vegetable  and  ani- 


How 
friendly 
bacteria 
may  be 
added   to 
the  soil 


W.  T.  Sktlllng 
FIG.  30.     Bean  roots,  showing  nodules. 


Encourag- 
ing other 
useful 
bacteria 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


mal  matter  in  the  soil. 
All  that  is  necessary  to 
get  them  working  is  to 
supply  them  with  plenty 
of  food.  They  are  espe- 
cially fond  of  manures, 
and  they  also  like  straw 
and  stubble.  Hence,  if 
stalks,  straw,  and  other 
refuse  are  plowed  under 
instead  of  being  burned, 
these  bacteria  will  feed 
on  them,  and  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
will  be  increased. 

Experiments  and  Obser- 
vations 

i.  From  a  damp,  shady 
place  in  a  forest  or  from 
under  bushes,  collect  soil 
which  is  rich  in  humus. 
Examine  it  for  decaying 
leaves  and  similar  matter. 
Plant  some  seeds  in  it  and 
notice  their  rapid  growth. 

2.  Evaporate  a  cup  of  clear  well  water  to  show  that  it  con- 
tains earthy  matter  in  solution. 

3.  See  how  many  different  plants  you  can  find  that  have  nodules 
on  the  roots.     Do  these  plants  have  flowers  similar  to  those  of 
peas  ?    Is  their  seed  in  pods  like  those  of  beans  or  peas  ? 

4.  Find  out  what  kinds  of  legumes,  if  any,  the  farmers  in  your 
neighborhood  plant  to  enrich  their  orchards  and  fields. 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  31.     A  pure  culture  of  soil  bacteria 
sufficient  for  an  acre  of  clover. 


Soil  Fertility  and  Its  Preservation  49 


References 

"Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring."     Farmers'  Bulletin  278. 
"Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils."     Farmers'  Bulletin  245. 
"Soil  Conservation."     Farmers'  Bulletin  406. 
"A  Simple  Way  to  Increase  Crop  Yield."     Farmers'  Bulletin  924. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 


How 
plowing 
saves 
rainfall 


Effect  on 
rools 


The  value 
of  a  dust 
mulch 


CULTIVATION   AND   DRAINAGE 

Plow  deep  while  sluggards  sleep. 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 

ONE  of  ^Esop's  fables  tells  of  a  farmer  who  assured  his 
sons,  to  whom  he  bequeathed  his  land,  that  in  it  there 
was  buried  treasure  which  they  would  find  by  digging. 
The  treasures  they  found  were  the  bountiful  crops  which 
their  stirring  of  the  soil  produced.  The  soil,  which  is 
our  country's  richest  treasure  house,  yields  this  nation 
annually  about  ten  thousand  million  dollars  in  the  value 
of  crops  and  of  animals  fed  upon  crops.  This  amount, 
large  as  it  is,  could  probably  be  doubled  by  more  intelli- 
gent and  thorough  cultivation. 

The  effects  of  cultivation,  (i)  Cultivation  allows  rain 
to  be  absorbed.  It  keeps  the  water  from  running  off  the 
surface  of  the  soil  and  being  lost.  In  dry  regions  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  or  disked  as  soon  as  the  crop  is 
removed,  so  that  water  will  be  stored  in  the  soil. 

(2)  It  mellows  the  ground.    The  stirring  of  the  soil 
allows  the  roots  to  penetrate  every  part  of  it,  and  the 
more  abundant  the  root  system  the  better  the  plant  is 
fed. 

(3)  It   prevents    loss    of  water    by    evaporation.     Soil 
water  is  constantly  being  raised  to  the  surface  by  cap- 
illarity and  lost  by  evaporation.     In  dry  weather  this  loss 
may  be  so  serious  as  to  injure  the  crop.     One  remedy  is 
to  keep  the  first  two  or  three  inches  of  the  topsoil  broken 
up  to  form  a  "dust  mulch,"  or,  in  dry  and  windy  regions, 

50 


Cultivation  and  Drainage 


a  dirt  mulch  of  fine  clods. 
A  mulch  tends  to  prevent 
capillary  water  from 
passing  through  from 
the  soil  below,  and  thus, 
very  largely,  stops  evap- 
oration at  the  surface 
(Fig.  32  and  Exp.  i). 
Whenever  the  mulch  be- 
comes packed,  as  it  may 
after  a  rain,  it  should 
be  restored  to  its  former 
condition  by  proper  cul- 
tivation (Fig.  33  and 
Exp.  2). 

(4)  It  ventilates  the 
soil.  The  roots  as  well 
as  the  green  portion  of 
any  plant  must  be  sup- 
plied with  oxygen,  and 

they  get  it  from  the  air  that  is  found  among  soil 
particles.  (Exp.  3.)  If  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
allowed  to  bake,  air  is  excluded  and  the  crop  suffers. 
A  plant,  while  growing  rapidly,  consumes  about  its  own 
volume  of  oxygen  daily,  and  a  seed  uses  about  a  thousand 
times  its  volume  of  oxygen  in  the  process  of  germination. 
The  necessity  for  soil  ventilation  is  very  great,  and  the 
ventilating  is  done  chiefly  by  cultivation. 

In  the  last  chapter  we  considered  the  bacteria  that 
add  to  the  store  of  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  These 
helpful  bacteria  cannot  work  without  plenty  of  soil  air. 


W.  T.  SkUting 

FIG.  32.  The  effect  of  a  mulch.  In  a  few 
seconds  water  rose  from  the  glass  vessel 
to  the  top  of  the  loaf  sugar,  but  it  could 
not  go  up  through  the  powdered  sugar. 


Keeping 
mulch 


The  need 
for  air 


Effect  of 
air  on 
helpful  soil 
bacteria 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Why  weeds 
larmful 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  33.     The  earth  that  was  allowed  to  pack  and  crust  over  lost  water 
(became  lighter)  more  rapidly  than  the  earth  that  was  stirred. 

Cultivation,  therefore,  furnishes  them  with  the  air  that 
they  need. 

(5)  //  destroys  weeds.  Weeds  live  on  exactly  the  same 
^^  ^  plant-food  material  that  the  crops  require,  and 
some  use  more  food  and  water  than  do  crop  plants. 
Hence,  every  weed  is  a  crop  robber  ;  and,  as  some  weeds 
are  hardier  and  more  prolific  than  the  crop  plants,  they 
may  even  crowd  out  a  crop  and  take  its  place.  Cultiva- 
tion at  the  right  time  destroys  the  weeds  and  greatly 
benefits  a  crop  (Figs.  35,  86,  and  87). 

The  Egyptians  used  a  crude  wooden  plow  tipped  with 
iron  and  drawn  by  men  or  oxen,  to  scratch  up  the  surface 
of  their  fields  (Fig.  36).  With  such  methods  a  farmer 
could  till  but  little  land,  and  that  little  not  very  well. 
The  plowshare  made  entirely  of  metal  was  not  invented 


Cultivation  and  Drainage 


53 


until  about  one  hundred  years  ago.  The  modern  plow  is 
better  than  the  ancient  plow  because  it  not  only  loosens 
the  soil  but  turns  the  earth  upside  down,  covering  any 
scattered  trash  or  manure.  It  exposes  the  bottom  of 
the  "  furrow  slice  "  to  the  influence  of  sun  and  air. 

Very  deep  plowing  is  usually  beneficial,  for  it  loosens 
a  large  quantity  of  soil  in  which  the  roots  may  search 
for  nourishment  and  into  which  rain  can  readily  be 
absorbed.  However,  the  plow  should  not  be  run  at  the 
same  depth  every  year,  for  its  pressure  and  the  trampling 
of  the  horse  in  the  furrow  will,  in  time,  make  a  hard 
layer,  called  a  "  plow  sole,"  at  this  level.  This  plow 
sole  is  a  sort  of  artificial  hardpan,  through  which  the 
roots  cannot  easily  grow.  Plowing  at  a  different  depth 
each  year  will  prevent  the  plow  sole  from  forming.  At 
a  California  experiment  station  the  crop  was  nearly 
doubled  in  one  year  by  plowing  deep  enough  to  break 
up  the  plow  sole. 

Plowing  the  ground  when  it  is  very  wet  injures  it  badly, 


Advantages 
of  the  mod- 
ern plow 


Deep 
plowing 


Avoiding 
a  plow  sole 


John  Deere  Plow  Co. 

PiG.  34.    A  disk  plow  is  used  to  work  soil  which  is  so  sticky  that  an 
ordinary  plow  will  not  turn  it. 


54 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Effect  of 
plowing 
wet  soil 


'*%flu.'          "v^ti^M^HH 


Bateman  Manufacturing  Co. 


FIG.  35.  Using  a  spring- tooth  weeder  to  cultivate  potatoes  planted  between 
rows  of  trees  in  an  apple  orchard.  Such  cultivation  kills  weeds  and  forms  a 
dust  mulch  that  preserves  moisture. 

especially  if  it  is  a  heavy  clay  soil.  (Exp.  4.)  Bricks 
are  made  by  working  wet  clay  (puddling  it)  and  then 
drying  and  baking  it.  A  wet  clay  soil  is  puddled  by  the 
plow,  and  the  sun  dries  the  furrow  slices  into  something 
resembling  brick.  If  a  handful  of  earth  will  not  crumble 
easily  upon  being  pressed,  it  is  too  wet  to  plow. 
Harrowing  All  the  ground  that  is  plowed  should  be  harrowed  the 
same  day,  while  it  is  moist  and  crumbly.  Clods  are  not 
easily  broken  after  they  become  dry.  But  fall  plowing 
should  be  left  rough  —  not  harrowed. 

A  drag  made  of  several  heavy  planks  fastened  together 
is  sometimes  drawn  over  the  plowed  field  to  level  the 
surface  and  break  the  clods  (Fig.  38). 

A  roller  may  be  used  before  the  land  is  harrowed, 


Dragging 


Rolling 


Cultivation  and  Drainage 


55 


Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 

FIG.  36.     Egyptian  agriculture.     (Picture  from  an  ancient  tomb  at 
Nakht,  Egypt.) 

in  order  to  pack  the  loose  soil  somewhat  against  the 
wet  subsoil  and  thus  aid  capillary  action  in  bringing 
water  up  to  the  seeds  or  roots.  Such  a  roller  as  that 
shown  in  Figure  39  is  better  than  a  solid  one,  for  it 
leaves  a  dirt  mulch  on  the  surface. 

It  is  less  than  two  hundred  years  since  machinery  Thebegin- 
began  to  be  much  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  crops. 


Tethro  Tull,  an  Englishman,  is  known  as  the  father  of  methods  of 

TTT,  .,  ,.        .      cultivation 

the  modern  system  of  cultivation.     While  traveling  in 

southern  France  he  saw  that  the  farmers  were  planting 
their  crops  in  rows,  and  cultivating  them  with  a  kind  of 
plow  drawn  by  horses.  Returning  to  England,  he  en- 
thusiastically recommended  the  method,  and  published 
a  book  called  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry. 

Instead   of   using   horses   to   draw   farm    machinery, 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Farming 

with 

tractors 


many  farmers  are  now  using  tractors,  two  forms  of  which, 
the  type  that  runs  on  wheels  and  the  "  caterpillar  " 


A    com- 
parison of 
tractors  and 
horses 


Use  of 
tractor  as  a 
stationary 
engine 


Reclaiming 

swampy 

land 


Gale  Manufacturing  Co. 
FIG.  37.     A  spike-tooth  harrow. 

or  "  track-layer  "  type,  are  coming  into  wide  use  (Fig. 
40).  The  caterpillar  type  rests  on  a  chain  belt. 
Having  a  larger  surface  to  press  against,  the  weight  of 
the  engine  does  not  bear  so  hard  at  any  one  point  as  it 
would  if  it  were  supported  on  wheels.  The  caterpillar 
engine  is  especially  valuable  for  work  on  soft  land. 
Either  form  of  tractor  will  do  more  work  than  a  team  of 
horses,  for  it  will  go  faster,  pull  harder,  and  work  longer 
hours.  A  small  tractor  will  do  the  work  of  at  least  four 
horses. 

The  tractor  may  be  used  as  a  stationary  engine  by 
connecting  it  with  a  belt  to  other  machinery.  In  this 
way  it  can  be  made  to  operate  a  pump,  a  threshing  ma- 
chine, a  silage  cutter,  or  a  circular  saw. 

Drainage.  Marshes  and  swamps  cover  considerable 
areas  of  the  country.  The  water  in  them  becomes 
stagnant  and  foul,  making  breeding  places  for  mosquitoes ; 
and  though  the  soil  is  usually  rich,  it  cannot  be  farmed 
because  of  the  water.  When  properly  drained,  such 
land  will  produce  good  crops. 

Damp  lowland,  as  well  as  marsh  land,  sometimes  needs 
drainage,  for  the  free  water  in  it  comes  so  near  to  the 


Cultivation  and  Drainage 


57 


FIG.  38.     A  home-made  plank  drag  or  clod  crusher  used  in  preparing  the  seed 
bed  for  barley.  t 


FIG.  39.    A  roller  that  leaves  the  surface  loose. 


u.  s.  D.  A. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The 

water 

table 


How 
drainage 
affects 
the  soil 


FIG.  40.     Plowing  sod  with  a  tractor. 

surface  that  the  roots  are  drowned.  If  we  dig  a  hole  a 
few  feet  or  sometimes  only  a  few  inches  deep  in  damp  land, 
we  may  come  to  a  place  where  water  begins  to  seep  in. 
(Exp.  5.)  The  upper  surface  of  this  free  water  which 
runs  out  of  the  soil  if  it  gets  a  chance  is  called  the  "  water 
table."  The  roots  of  most  farm  plants,  excepting  rice  and 
cranberries,  will  not  grow  below  the  water  table,  because 
they  cannot  get  enough  air  there.  For  this  reason  the 
water  table  should  not  be  very  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  In  sloping,  well-drained  land  there  is  usually 
no  free  water  and  therefore  no  water  table  near  the  surface. 
Artificial  drainage,  by  lowering  the  water  table,  in- 
creases the  depth  to  which  roots  can  go  and  so  makes 
available  a  larger  supply  of  plant-food  material.  It 
helps  to  ventilate  the  soil  and  to  make  it  warmer;  it 
makes  the  soil  looser  and  lighter  and  easier  to  work  with 
farm  implements ;  and  it  greatly  increases  the  number 
of  the  beneficial  soil  bacteria.  Even  though  no  plant 


Cultivation  and  Drainage 


59 


food  be  added  to  the 
soil,  the  fertility  of  the 
field  is  greatly  increased, 
and  soil  that  would 
otherwise  be  too  wet  for 
farming  is  made  produc- 
tive. 

Drainage  also  protects 
crops  in  time  of  drought, 
a  well-drained  field  being 
drier  in  wet  weather  and 
having  more  moisture 
available  in  dry  weather 
than  one  that  is  not 
drained.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  in  an  un- 
drained  field  the  roots 
develop  in  the  thin  upper 
layer  of  drier  and  venti- 
lated soil.  Later  in  the 
season  the  plants  may 
even  suffer  from  drought, 
for  as  drier  .  weather 
comes  on  the  water  table 
is  lowered  and  not  enough 
moisture  may  be  left  in 
the  surface  soil  to  sup- 
port the  crop.  But  where  there  are  drains  the  surplus 
water  is  carried  away  in  the  rainy  season,  while  in  dry 
weather  the  plants,  being  deeply  rooted,  do  not 
suffer. 


Protec- 
tion against 
drought 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  41.  This  flowerpot  was  filled  with' 
earth  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  salt 
had  been  added.  Water  that  was  allowed 
to  drain  through  carried  with  it  much  of 
the  salt.  Note  that  a  crust  of  salt  was 
left  on  the  flowerpot  when  water  seeped 
through  the  sides  of  the  pot  and  evapo- 
rated. An  alkali  crust  on  the  ground  is 
formed  in  a  similar  manner. 


6o 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Alkali 


Drainage 

by 

ditching 

and  by 

tiling 

compared 


In  some  parts  of  the  West  where  irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed, drainage  serves  to  carry  away  an  excess  of  alkali 
(Fig.  41  and  Exp.  6). 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  42.     Cross  section  of  soil,  showing  tile  in  place.     The  soil  is 
drained  and  roots  can  grow  above  the  "ground-water  curve." 


Open  ditches  may  be  used  to  carry  off  surplus  water, 
but  they  are  very  inconvenient  and  take  space  where 
crop  plants  might  grow.  Underground  drains,  on  the 
contrary,  leave  the  surface  of  the  field  as  it  was.  They 
are  made  by  laying  short  lengths  of  tile  end  to  end 
several  feet  underground.  The  water  gets  in  where 
the  ends  of  the  tiles  are  loosely  joined  to  one  another. 
The  water  table  cannot  stand  much  higher  than  the 
bottom  of  the  drain  (Fig.  42) ,  for  any  free  water  will  run 
into  the  drain  and  be  carried  away. 


Experiments  and  Observations 

i.  Pulverize  a  little  sugar  with  a  table  knife.  Heap  the  pow- 
dered sugar  upon  a  lump  of  loaf  sugar  and  set  the  lump  into  a 
shallow  dish  of  water.  How  far  does  the  water  go  up?  What 
does  this  experiment  suggest  as  to  the  effect  of  a  mulch  ?  (Fig.  30.) 


Cultivation  and  Drainage  61 

2.  Set  a  cup  on  each  pan  of  a  pair  of  scales  and  put  the  same 
amounts  of  equally  moist  earth  in  each  cup,  making  the  scales 
balance.     Then  pack  the  dirt  in  one  cup  and  loosen  the  surface 
of  the  dirt  in  the  other.     After  a  few  days'  absence,  which  cup 
has  become   the  lighter  through  loss  of  water?     Why  has  this 
cup  lost  the  more  water  ?     What  does  this  suggest  as  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  a  field?     (Fig.  31.) 

3.  To  show  the  presence  of  air  in  soil,  drop  a  clod  into  water 
and  notice  the  bubbles. 

4.  Wet  two  spots  of  clay  soil.    Immediately  work  one  spot 
very  thoroughly  with  a  hoe.     Let  the  other  spot  become  nearly 
dry  and  hoe  it.     Compare  the  condition  of  the  two  spots  a  few 
days  later. 

5.  Dig  down  in  low  ground  to  see  if  you  can  locate  the  water 
table. 

6.  Partly  fill  a  flowerpot  with  earth  mixed  with  a  spoonful 
of  salt,  and  set  the  flowerpot  over  a  vessel  that  will  catch  the 
drainage.     Pour  water  on  the  soil  and  evaporate  the  water  that 
drains  through.     What  became  of  some  of  the  salt  that  was  in  the 
earth  ?    How  might  a  field  be  freed  from  alkali  ? 

References 

"Management  of  Soil  to  Conserve  Moisture."     Farmers'  Bulletin  266. 
"Tile  Drainage  on  the  Farm."     Farmers'  Bulletin  524. 


CHAPTER  SIX 


Making 
a  right 
beginning 


Five 
methods 
of  multiply- 
ing plants 


The 

selection  of 
good 
parent 
stock 


Why  seeds 
need  to  be 
tested 


THE  PROPAGATION   AND    CARE   OF   PLANTS 

Jock,  when  ye  hae  naething  else  to  do,  ye  may  be  sticking  in  a  tree ; 
it  will  be  growing,  Jock,  when  ye're  sleeping. 

SIR  WALTER  SCOTT 

THE  old  saying,  "  Well  begun  is  half  done,"  is  a  good 
motto  for  any  one  undertaking  to  plant  a  garden,  a 
lawn,  an  orchard,  or  a  field.  Mistakes  made  in  the 
beginning  are  hard  to  correct  afterwards.  Some  com- 
mon mistakes  are  failure  to  prepare  the  ground  well 
before  planting,  using  seeds  and  plants  of  poor  quality 
or  poor  variety,  and  careless  planting. 

The  principal  methods  of  propagating  (starting) 
plants  are  (i)  planting  seed,  (2)  planting  cuttings  (slips), 
(3)  layering,  (4)  grafting  and  budding,  and  (5)  planting 
bulbs.  Whichever  of  these  methods  may  be  used,  the 
most  important  thing  is  to  start  with  seed  or  other  ma- 
terial from  the  best  possible  parent  plants.  After  that, 
the  most  necessary  matter  is  properly  to  care  for  the 
plants  while  they  are  young.  But  no  amount  of  care 
will  make  possible  the  raising  of  good  plants  if  one 
starts  with  poor  stock. 

Propagation  by  seeds.  In  Chapter  One  we  noted 
that  each  seed  has  a  hard  outer  coat.  Within  this  outer 
coat  is  the  young  plant  or  embryo,  together  with  a  supply 
of  food  on  which  the  new  plant  lives  until  its  roots  and 
leaves  are  well  started.  The  process  by  which  the  seed 
becomes  a  young  plant  —  that  is,  by  which  it  sprouts 
—  is  called  "  germination."  Some  seed*  will  pot  ger- 

62 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  43.  The  "rag  doll"  method  of  testing  seed  corn.  The  cloth,  with  the 
test  grains  in  place,  was  rolled  and  tied,  and  it  was  kept  thoroughly  damp 
until  the  seeds  germinated.  The  ten  grains  on  each  of  the  squares  came 
from  a  separate  ear  that  bore  the  number  in  the  square.  The  ears  numbered 
8,  9,  and  14  should  not  be  planted. 

minate  at  all ;  others  germinate  so  feebly  that  the  plant 
will  either  die  or  be  weak  and  puny.  Therefore  seeds 
should  be  tested  before  they  are  planted  (Fig.  43). 

A  convenient  method  of  testing  seeds  is  to  count  out  A  simple 
a  certain  number,  as  one  hundred,  spread  them  on  one 
end  of  a  flannel  cloth  that  has  been  wrung  out  of  water 
so  as  to  be  damp  but  not  saturated,  and  lay  the  other 


64  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

end  of  the  cloth  over  to  cover  the  seeds.  Place  the 
folded  cloth  in  a  plate  and  turn  over  it  another  plate 
to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation.  Set  it  in  a  warm  place 
and  examine  daily  to  remove  all  seeds  that  have  sprouted. 
If  as  many  as  ninety  seeds  out  of  one  hundred  germinate, 
the  seed  may  be  considered  fairly  good.  (Exp.  i.) 

Storing  If  seeds  are  properly  selected  and  cared  for  at  harvest, 

and  if  they  are  properly  stored  till  planting  time,  there 
will  be  little  trouble  in  getting  them  to  germinate. 

Most  seeds  should  be  kept  dry  until  planting  time, 
but  those  of  apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  cherries,  which 
are  inclosed  in  a  juicy  fruit,  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  dry  after  being  removed  from  the  fruit.  If 
they  remain  dry  long,  the  embryo  dies.  Such  seeds 
should  either  be  planted  immediately  or  be  kept  damp 
until  time  to  plant.  They  may  be  mixed  with  damp 
sand,  put  in  a  bag,  and  kept  in  a  place  so  cool  that  they 
will  not  germinate  until  planting  time ;  or  they  may  be 
layered  in  sand.  To  layer  seeds,  cover  the  bottom  of 
a  box  with  damp  sand ;  lay  a  cloth  over  this,  and  place 
a  layer  of  seeds  on  the  cloth;  cover  the  seeds  with 
another  cloth,  and  on  this  place  a  new  layer  of  damp 
sand.  Proceed  in  this  manner  until  the  box  is  filled 
with  alternate  layers  of  seed  and  sand.  Keep  the' box 
in  a  cool  place. 

Why  seed  Seed  corn  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  If  it  is 
allowed  to  absorb  moisture  or  is  not  thoroughly  dried 
after  gathering,  the  moisture  will  freeze  in  the  kernel 
and  kill  the  germ.  When  the  kernels  are  very  dry,  there 
is  little  danger  that  they  will  be  damaged  by  freezing. 
A  good  way  to  store  seed  corn  is  to  remove  the  husks 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


FIG.  44.     Stringing  ears  of  seed  corn. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


and  string  the  ears,  hanging  them  from  rafters  or  from 
a  wire ;  or  they  may  be  strung  as  shown  in  Figure  44 
or  stuck  on  spikes  as  in  Figure  45.  Another  good  way 
is  to  turn  the  husks  back,  braid  them  together  in  bunches, 
and  then  suspend  the  corn.  The  ears  may  also  be  laid 
in  racks,  but  there  they  are  likely  to  be  attacked  by 
rats  and  mice.  .  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  ears 
be  allowed  to  touch  each  other.  (Exp.  2.) 

Whether  seeds  are  planted  in  the  open  field,  the 
garden,  or  the  greenhouse,  the  method  of  preparing  the 
seed  bed  is  the  same  in  principle.  The  chief  difference 
lies  in  the  degree  of  care  that  it  is  possible  to  take.  In 
all  cases  the  seed  bed  should  be  (i)  deep,  (2)  well  drained, 
(3)  mellow,  (4)  well  packed  below  the  surface,  but  (5) 
fairly  loose  on  top,  (6)  free  from  clods,  (7)  as  level  as 


Ways  of 
storing 


corn 


The  seed 
bed 


Eight 
conditions 
to  be 
desired 


66 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Prepara- 
tion of  seed 
bed    * 


Garden 
soil 


possible,  and  (8)  com- 
posed of  soil  well  sup- 
plied with  plant  food. 

The  process  used  in 
getting  the  seed  bed 
into  proper  condition 
will  depend  upon  its 
size.  Deep  plowing  in 
the  field,  deep  spading 
in  the  garden,  and  filling 
a  box  with  fresh  soil  in 
the  greenhouse  will  all 
accomplish  the  same 
purpose, — they  will  mel- 
low the  soil  and  admit 
air,  giving  the  roots  a 
chance  to  penetrate  to 
a  good  depth.  Clods 
should  be  broken  up  im- 
mediately, except  after 
fall  plowing,  which  is 
left  rough  over  winter. 

Proper  richness  of  soil 
cannot  always  be  had 
in  large  fields  without 
great  expense ;  but  in  a 
garden,  where  so  much 
FIG.  45-  Seed  corn  stuck  on  spikes.  and  such  expensive  seed 

Notice  the  seed-test  box  below.  .g    used     and     where    SQ 

much  labor  is  expended,  it  is  false  economy  to  save  on 
fertilizer. 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants  67 

A  soil  suitable  for  seed  boxes  ought  to  have  sufficient  The  right 
sand  and  humus  to  keep  it  from  forming  a  crust.     One-  ^Idboxes 
third  ordinary  soil,  one-third  sand,  and  one-third  leaf 
mold  makes  a  good  mixture. 

Packing  the  soil,  as  we  have  seen,  is  accomplished  in  Peaking  the 
the  field  by  means  of  a  roller  or  a  subsurface  packer.  * 
In  the  greenhouse  a  flat  wooden  block  called  a  "  float  " 
is  used  to  firm  the  earth  in  the  seed  boxes.     The  surface  Tools  used 
in  both  cases  is  afterwards  made  loose,  —  in  the  field 
by  harrowing  and  in  the  greenhouse  by  sifting  a  layer  of 
fine  soil  on  top  of  the  packed  soil  in  the  seed  boxes. 
In  the  garden  a  rake  is  used  in  making  the  mulch. 

A  rule  often  given  for  greenhouse  planting  is  this,  —  Depth  of 
that  a  seed  should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  soil  equal 
to  its  own  thickness.  Thus  a  coconut  might  be  placed 
about  seven  inches  underground,  but  such  fine  seeds 
as  those  of  the  begonia  should  have  as  little  cover- 
ing as  possible.  They  are  sometimes  covered  only 
with  a  damp  cloth,  which  is  removed  when  the  seeds  are 
sprouted. 

A  small  seed  must  be  near  the  surface  because  the  new  Why  small 
plant  cannof*begin  to  draw  nourishment  from  the  air 
until  it  comes  up  into  the  light.  If  it  has  far  to  come, 
it  may  die  of  starvation  before  it  reaches  the  surface. 
A  large  seed,  having  a  greater  store  of  nourishment, 
may  send  up  a  shoot  through  several  inches  of  soil  be- 
fore the  young  plant  needs  to  depend  upon  food  of  its 
own  making. 

In  the  field  and  garden,  where  the  surface  of  the  ground  Rules  for 
is  very  dry  and  moisture  from  below  is  relied  upon  to  planting 
cause  germination,  the  seeds  must  be  put  deep  enough 


68 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Proper 


for  the  capillary  water  to  reach  them.  (Exp.  3.)  In 
cool,  wet  weather,  however,  seeds  need  the  surface  warmth 
which  the  sunshine  supplies,  and  they  will  rot  if  too 
deeply  covered.  The  looser  and  drier  the  soil,  the 
deeper  the  planting  should  be.  The  usual  depths  j:or 
planting  are  :  clover  and  grass  seeds  %  to  i^  inches  ; 
wheat,  oats,  etc.,  i-g-  to  3  inches;  beans,  i  inch;  peas 
and  corn,  2  to  4  inches.  The  smaller  depths  above 
given  are  for  heavy,  moist  soils  ;  the  greater  depths  are 
for  light,  dry  soils. 

Planting  too  thickly  often  accounts  for  poor  results. 
^  very  c^ose  together,  plants  interfere  with  each  other's 
of  planting    growth  and  become  weak  and  spindling,  just  as  they  do 

too  thickly      f 

if  they  are  crowded  by  weeds.  If  plants  come  up  too 
thickly  they  should  be  thinned  at  once,  before  they 
begin  to  crowd  each  other.  In  doing  this,  keep  in  mind 
the  size  that  the  plant  will  have  when  full  grown.  Large 
seeds  are  seldom  planted  too  thickly  ;  but  great  care  has 
to  be  used  in  planting  small  seed  like  that  of  turnips. 
One  good  way  to  handle  such  seed  is  to  mix  it  with  fine, 
dry  sand  or  dust  before  planting.  Another  method 
often  employed  with  cabbage,  onion,  and  lettuce  seed 
is  to  sow  it  thickly  in  boxes  of  earth  and  transplant 
before  the  plants  are  big  enough  to  crowd  each  other. 
In  China,  where  labor  is  cheap  and  land  is  scarce,  this 
method  is  employed  in  raising  rice. 

Propagation  by  cuttings.  A  "  cutting  "  or  "  slip  " 
is  a  piece  of  a  small  branch  or  twig  planted  to  take  root. 
Even  a  leaf  of  some  plants  will  take  root  and  grow 
(Fig.  46).  Most  of  our  house  plants,  and  roses,  and  such 
fruit  plants  as  currants  and  grapes,  are  propagated  by 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


69 


cuttings.  One  advan- 
tage in  propagating  by 
cuttings  is  that  growth 
is  generally  more  rapid 
than  from  the  seed. 
Another  advantage  in 
their  use  is  that  the 
plants  produced  will  be 
like  the  parent  plants, 
whereas  seedlings  are 
often  very  different,  es- 
pecially in  fruits  and 
flowers. 

Most  trees  and  shrubs 
and    vines  —  plants    of 
hard  and  woody  fiber  — 
grow  best  from  cuttings 
made  of  wood  that  has 

had  a  year's  growth.  These  are  known  as  "  hardwood 
cuttings  "  (Fig.  47).  On  the  other  hand,  herbs  such  as 
verbenas,  fuchsias,  and  petunias  —  soft  and  pulpy  plants 
—  grow  best  if  the  cuttings  are  made  from  the  soft  tips 
of  growing  branches.  Such  slips  are  called  "  softwood 
cuttings  "  (Fig.  48). 

A  hardwood  cutting  should  be  long  enough  to  include 
at  least  two  nodes  (the  place  from  which  a  bud  grows) ,  — 
one  to  produce  roots,  and  one  for  branches  to  grow  from. 
The  lower  cut  should  be  made  just  below  a  node,  and  the 
upper  cut,  if  there  is  to  be  one,  between  two  nodes. 
Softwood  cuttings  should  be  very  short,  including  only 
one  bud. 


Advantages 
in  the  use  of 
cuttings 


Two  kinds 
of  cuttings 


W.  T.  Stilling 
FIG.  46.    A  leaf  cutting  of  begonia.      / 


The  prep- 
aration of 
cuttings 


Whereto 
cut 


Preventing 
decay  and 
wilting 


70  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

Cuttings  must  be  made  with  a  very  sharp  knife.    A 
clean  cut  heals  over  more  easily  than  does  a  torn  and 


Planting 
cuttings ; 
why  sand  is 
used 


>***«7-  \0^-~ 

FIG.  47.     Hardwood  cuttings:  a,  simple  cutting;  b,  heel  cutting; 
c,  mallet  cutting ;  d,  single-eye  cutting. 

slivered  end;  and  unless  the  wound  quickly  becomes 
"  callused  "  over  with  new  growth,  bacteria  will  soon 
enter  and  cause  decay.  All  leaves  that  would  be  covered 
and  a  part  of  those  that  would  be  above  ground  should 
be  removed.  Covered  leaves  might  start  decay,  and 
too  many  above  ground  would  draw  moisture  from  the 
cutting  and  dry  it  out  too  much.  (Exp.  4.) 

In  the  planting  of  cuttings  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in 
mind  the  need  for  air.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  the 
production  of  roots  that  plenty  of  air  be  present,  and  for 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants  71 

this  reason  cuttings  should  be  started  in  coarse,  damp 

sand  (Fig.  49).     No  other  nourishment    than  air  and 

moisture  is  necessary  for  getting  the  roots  started,  and 

as  sand  admits  air  more  freely  than  other  soil  does,  it 

is  better  to  use  either  that  or  a  very  sandy  loam.    Slips   The  effect 

are  often  prevented  from  forming  roots  by  being  kept  water  " 

too  wet.     Even  sand,  if  water-soaked,  will  not  admit 

air ;    and  there  must  be  proper  drainage  or  the  cuttings 

will  rot.     (Exp.  5.) 

About  three  fourths  of  the  length  of  a  cutting  should  The 
be  placed  below  the  surface.     The  purpose  in  planting 
so  deeply  is  to  prevent  drying  out.     A  light-colored  deeply 
cloth  screen  laid  loosely  over  a  bed  of  slips  helps  to  keep 
the  tops  moist.     A  glass  jar  is  sometimes  set  over  the 
plant  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture. 

Some  plants,  such  as  the  geranium  and  the  Wandering 
Jew,  grow  so  easily  from  cuttings  that  little  care  is  neces- 
sary.     But  with  most  plants  roots  cannot  be  so  easily 
induced  to  start,  and  if 
we  would   succeed  well 
we    should    follow    the 
best  methods. 

Cuttings     are     most  ^^  When  to 

easily  removed  from  the 
sand  bed  as  soon  as  they 
have  callused  over  at  the 
cut,  but  before  roots 
have  actually  appeared. 
(After  the  cut  has  healed 
by  being  callused  over, 

FIG.  48.    A  softwood  cutting.     (Slip  of 

roots  are  quite  certain  coieus.) 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  advan- 
tage in 
layering 


FIG.  49.     Starting  cuttings  of  geranium.     Geraniums  are  among  the  easiest 
plants  to  propagate  in  this  way. 

to  develop.)  Cuttings  from  roses  often  die  if  they  are 
disturbed  when  the  roots  are  young.  So  it  is  better  to 
plant  rose  slips  in  the  open  ground  with  a  shovelful  of 
sand  in  each  hole,  leaving  them  for  a  year  before  trans- 
planting. They  will  then  be  thoroughly  rooted. 

Layering.  As  a  cutting  must  depend  upon  the  nour- 
ishment within  itself  until  it  can  produce  roots,  it  must 
be  protected  very  carefully  from  influences  that  would 
cause  it  either  to  dry  out  or  rot.  But  if  a  twig  can  be 
left  joined  with  the  parent  plant  while  it  is  forming  roots, 
there  is  little  danger  of  failure  (Fig.  50).  This  can  be 
done  by  bending  the  branch  or  vine  down  to  the  ground, 
covering  a  part  of  it  in  the  moist  earth,  and  letting  it 
remain  there  until  roots  develop  and  a  new  plant  is 
formed.  This  process  is  called  "  layering."  Bushes 
and  vines,  as  black  raspberries  and  grapes,  may  be 
started  in  this  way.  (Exp.  6.) 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


73 


In  layering,  as  in  preparing  cuttings,  the  leaves  and 
buds  which  would  go  underground  should  be  removed. 
The  covered  portion  of  the  stem  must  be  fastened  securely 
to  prevent  it  from  being  moved  by  the  wind.  A  shovel- 
ful of  sand  or  leaf  mold  mixed  with  the  earth  at  the  point 
where  the  branch  is  buried  will  make  it  root  more  easily. 

A  notch  is  sometimes  cut  at  the  point  where  it  is  Methods  of 
desired  to  force  out  roots,  as  they  develop  more  easily 
at   a   cut.     A   better   method   is   to   split   the   branch  stari 
(Fig.   50,  a)  and   put  dirt  into   the  opening.     In  ring  Ring 
layering  (Fig.  50,  b)  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  that 
sap  cannot  run  back  toward  the  roots  if  a  ring  of  bark 
is  removed ;  that  is,  if  the  branch  is  girdled.     Nourish- 
ment from  the  roots  can  flow  past  the  girdle,  for  it 
travels  within  the  stem.     But  the  returning  sap  flows 


FIG.  50.  Layering:  a,  stem  split  to  start  roots;  b,  ring  of  bark  removed; 
c,  "tip  layering"  in  pot.  Notice  the  crossed  stakes  which  hold  down  the  stem 
that  has  been  laid  underground,  j 


74 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Layering 
in  a  box 


Offsets; 
runners; 
rhizomes, 
suckers ; 
division 


Advantages 
in  grafting 


in  the  inner  layer  of  bark  and  so  is  checked  at  the  girdle, 
concentrating  nourishment  at  the  point  where  roots  are 
to  be  produced. 

If  branches  are  too  high  to  be  layered  in  the  ground, 
a  box  of  earth  in  which  to  start  the  new  plant  may  be 
supported  as  shown  in  Figure  50,  c.  Such  a  box  or  pot 
may  also  be  used  for  branches  at  the  ground ;  then,  when 
roots  form,  the  plant  is  already  potted  and  is  easier  to 
remove. 

Various  methods  of  propagating.  Bulbous  plants  such 
as  tulips  and  hyacinths  form  new  shoots  on  their  roots 
which  can  be  separated  and  replanted.  These  are 
called  "  offsets." 

Plants  like  the  strawberry  have  creeping  branches 
which  send  roots  down  into  the  earth  at  intervals,  thus 
starting  new  plants.  Such  branches  are  called  "  runners" 
or  "  stolons"  (Fig.  51). 

Rhizomes  are  underground  runners.  They  are  not 
roots,  but  are  rootlike  stems  which  send  up  shoots  here 
and  there,  as  in  the  iris. 

Suckers  are  young  plants  that  grow  from  the,  roots 
of  the  parent.  They  may  be  seen  coming  up  around  an 
elm  tree.  Some  blackberries  are  propagated  by  trans- 
planting suckers.  Suckers  from  grafted  trees  are  not 
good  to  transplant,  for  they  will  be  like  the  seedling 
upon  which  the  grafting  was  done. 

Division  is  a  good  means  of  propagating  some  plants, 
particularly  ferns.  A  plant  is  divided  through  the  roots 
or  rhizomes,  and  the  parts  are  set  out  as  separate  plants. 

Grafting  and  budding.  In  grafting,  a  branch  several 
inches  long  from  one  tree  is  inserted  into  another.  If 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


75 


U.  JS.  D.  A. 


FIG.  51.     A  strawberry  plant  that  was  set  out  in  the  spring  at  Osage,  Iowa, 
photographed  in  the  middle  of  July.    Note  the  runners  in  bloom. 

a  bud  instead  of  a  small  branch  is  grafted  into  another 
tree  or  shrub,  the  process  is  called  "  budding  "  (Fig.  52). 
In  cither  case  the  fruit  produced  on  the  branches  grow- 
ing out  of  the  graft  will  be  exactly  the  same  as  the  fruit 
of  the  tree  from  which  the  graft  was  taken.  In  fact, 
the  "  scion,"  the  new  growth  from  the  point  at  which 
the  graft  was  made,  is  but  a  continuation  of  the  original 
tree  from  which  the  scion  was  taken,  not  a  new  tree 
as  is  one  raised  from  a  seed.  Seedling  fruit  may  or  may 
not  be  good,  but  we  can  know  the  quality  of  grafted 
fruit  beforehand.  This  was  noted  as  an  advantage  in 
the  use  of  cuttings.  But  in  grafting,  a  double  advan-  HOW  scion 
tage  can  be  secured,  since  the  root  which  is  to  support 
the  tree  may  also  be  selected.  Since  this  is  so,  nursery- 
men try  to  graft  the  best  fruit-bearing  branches  upon 


76 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Putting  the 
growing 
layers  in 
contact 


W.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  52.  White  roses  budded  on  a  red  rose  bush.  All  characters  of  the  budded 
roses  —  as  shape,  size,  and  color  —  are  the  same  as  they  would  be  if  the  roses 
were  growing  on  their  own  bush. 

varieties  that  have  the  hardiest  roots.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  only  closely  related  trees 
can  be  grafted  —  as  peaches  on  plums  or  apricots,  but 
not  peaches  on  apples.  The  plant  into  which  the  scion 
is  grafted  is  called  the  "  stock." 

The  process  of  grafting  is  not  very  difficult,  but 
budding  is  so  much  easier  that  it  is  more  commonly 
practiced  than  grafting.  (Exp.  7.) 

In  either  grafting  or  budding,  the  most  important 
thing  is  to  see  that  the  growing  layer  of  the  bud  or 
graft  is  placed  in  contact  with  the  growing  layer  of  the 
stock.  The  growing  portion  of  a  tree  is  the  layer  that 
lies  just  under  the  bark.  This  is  called  the  "  cambium 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


77 


layer."  The  method  by  which  cambium  layers  of  stock 
and  scion  are  brought  together  is  made  clear  in  Figures 
53,  54,  and  55. 

The  "  tongue  "  or  "  whip  "  graft  is  very  commonly  The 
used.  Scion  and  stock  must  be  of  about  equal  size, 
the  diameter  of  a  lead  pencil  being  about  right,  and  cuts 
should  be  made  as  shown  in  Figure  53.  In  uniting  the 
scion  and  stock,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  growing 
layers  of  the  two  stems  in  contact,  at  least  on  one  side. 

In  the  "  saddle  graft  "  the  stock  is  cut  wedge-shaped  ;   The 
the  scion  is  split,  placed  over  the  stock,   and   firmly 
pressed  down.     A  saddle  graft  is  easier  to  make  than  is 
a  tongue  graft,  but  it  has  rather  less  cut  surface  where 
growth  may  take  place.     (Exp.  8.) 


a 


FIG.  53.  The  four  steps  in  whip  grafting :  a,  the  first  cuts;  b,  the  cut  surfaces 
extended  to  increase  contact  of  cambium  layers;  c,  scion  and  stock  joined; 
d,  the  graft  bound  up. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


"  Working 
over"  a 
Iree 


Grafting  is  usually  done  when   the  stock  is  small, 
one  year  old  or  less,  but  sometimes  an  old  tree  is  "  worked 


B 


FIGS.  54  and  55.     Cleft  grafting  (left)  and  budding  (right).     In  each  figure, 
A  is  the  scion  and  B  the  stock;   C  shows  scion  and  stock  joined. 

over  "or  "  top  grafted,"  in  order  to  make  it  bear  more 
desirable  fruit.  In  this  operation  "  cleft  grafting  "  is 
used.  All  the  limbs  are  sawed  off,  the  ends  are  split 
or  sawed  open,  and  a  graft  is  wedged  into  the  end  of 
each  limb.  Sometimes  two  grafts  are  inserted  (Fig.  54). 
Unless  the  graft  is  firmly  wedged  in  place,  it  must  be 
tied  with  raffia  or  soft  cord.  (Raffia  is  a  fiber  that 
comes  from  a  kind  of  palm.  It  may  be  purchased  at 
seed 'stores.)  The  binding  material  must  be  removed 
as  soon  as  growth  begins.  When  the  limbs  are  taken 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants  79 

off,  the  tree  should  be  protected  from  sun  scald  by  a 
coat  of  whitewash.  Often  a  few  limbs  are  left  until 
the  next  year  to  shade  the  tree. 

In  all  grafts,  wax  is  spread  over  the  place  where  the  Grafting 
stems  have  been  joined.  This  is  done  to  keep  out  air 
and  moisture.  Where  slender  stems  are  grafted,  they 
are  generally  bound  together  before  the  wax  is  applied. 
Good  grafting  wax  can  be  made  by  melting  together  one. 
pound  of  tallow,  two  pounds  of  rosin,  and  a  pound  of 
beeswax. 

The  most  common  method  of  budding  is  illustrated  Budding  / 
in  Figures  55,  56,  57,  and  58.     It  is  known  as  "  shield  "  or 
"  T  "  budding.     For  this  work  buds  should  be  selected  Selection 
from  the  middle  part  of  the  branch.     Those  at  the  tip 
are  too  young,  and  those  far  back  are  too  old.     They 
should  be  dormant  (resting) ;  that  is,  they  should  not 
have  begun  to  unfold.     A  well-developed  bud  is  chosen, 
and  the  edge  of  a  sharp  knife  is  placed  crosswise  half  an 
inch  above  it.     A  cut  is  made  downward  through  the 
bark  till  the  knife  comes  out  half  an  inch  below  the  bud. 
With  the  point  of  the  knife  some  of  the  wood  is  picked 
from  the  back  of  the  bud.     , 
If   there   is  a  -  leaf   at  the 
bud,  it  should  be  cut  off  so 
as  to  teave  the  petiole  for  a 

handle.     A  T-shaped  cut  is   ^fllH  Inserting 

made  in  the  stock ;  the  bark       5!S|fl&^^^  bud  in 

stock 
on  each  side  of  the  vertical 

cut  is  rolled  back,  and  the 

bud  is  inserted  (Fig.  57).  v  5  D  A 

A  wet   strip  of   raffia  is  FIG.  56.    Cutting  a  bud. 


8o 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


W.  T.  SUlling 

FIG.  57.    Budding  seedling  fruit  trees;  inserting  a  bud,  and  wrapping 
with  raffia. 

Binding  it  used  to  bind  the  bud  in  place.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  cover  the  cut  entirely  with  -the  raffia  so  as  to  exclude 
air  and  prevent  drying.  Sometimes  a  little  grafting 
wax  is  smeared  over  the  cut,  but  this  is  usually  not 
necessary.  The  raffia  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
the  bud  shows  signs  of  growth,  which  will  usually  be 
within  a  month  or  six  weeks. 

Any  sprouts  that  may  grow  on  the  stock  after  budding 
should  be  removed.  The  bud  will  then  grow  more 
rapidly,  as  it  will  receive  all  the  nourishment  that  the 
root  system  produces  (Fig.  58). 

The  time  Grafting  is  usually  done  in  the  spring  when  the  sap 

and  U       1  begins  to  flow.     June  and  July  are   considered  good 

grafting        months  for  budding ;   but  this  may  be  done  successfully 

at  any  time  when  there  is  sap  enough  to  make  the  bark 

loosen  easily.     (Exp.  9.) 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


81 


Caring  for  trees.  A  seedling 
fruit  tree  may  be  budded  when 
it  is  about  a  year  old.  It  is  then 
left  in  the  nursery  until  the  bud 
has  had  a  year  to  grow,  when 
the  tree  may  be  higher  than  a 
man's  head  and  have  many 
branches.  Upon  removal  to  the 
orchard,  it  is  at  once  pruned 


Pruning 
the   young 
tree 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  59.     Peach  trees  pruned,  ready  to 
plant. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  58.  When  a  bud  has 
grown  fast,  the  stock  is  gen- 
erally cut  away,  just  above 
the  bud. 

back  (Figs.  59  and  60). 
The  central  stem  is  cut 
off  (headed)  about  thirty 
inches  above  the 
ground;  only  four  or 
five  of  the  strongest 
limbs  are  left,  and  even 
these  are  usually  much 
shortened.  Every  cut 
should  be  made  just 
beyond  a  bud,  so  that 
no  stubs  will  be  left  to 


82 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Protecting 
orchard 
trees  from 
frost 


die.  The  manner  of 
pruning  a  peach  tree 
until  it  is  ready  to  bear 
is  shown  in  Figures  61, 
62,  and  63. 

After  a  fruit  tree  is 
given  the  desired  shape 
by  the  first  few  years  of 
pruning,  it  needs  little 
attention  other  than  to 
be  kept  from  growing 
I  so  many  branches  as 

^j&F  ^spile  to    crowd    the    fruit   or 

'  keep  out  the  sunlight 
(Fig.  63).  Any  dead 
branches  should  be 
trimmed  out. 

There  are  a  few  weeks  in  early  spring  when  fruit 
buds  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  frost.  Many  orchardists 
have  stoves  ready  to  light  on  frosty  nights.  The  tem- 
perature of  an  orchard  may  be  raised  several  degrees 
by  these  outdoor  fires  (Fig.  65). 

An  orchard  on  low  ground*is  in  much  greater  danger 
of  being  injured  by  frost  than  is  one  on  high  ground 
(Fig.  66).  Cold,  like  water,  flows  to  the  bottom  of  a 
valley.  A  sharp  narrowing  of  the  walls  of  a  valley,  or 
a  grove  of  tall  trees  within  it,  will  check  the  flow  of 
air  as  water  is  checked  by  a  dam.  Such  a  place,  where 
cold  air  cannot  drain  away,  is  badly  chosen  for  an 
orchard.  (Exp.  10.) 

If  a  tree  is  injured  by  animals  or  disease  or  by  being 


FIG.  60. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

Peach  tree  six  months  after 
planting. 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 

\ 


Wickson's  "California  Fruits" 

FIGS.  6 1  and  62.  First  year  in  orchard:  Fig.  61  (left),  branched  yearling,  and 
same  tree  cut  back  at  planting;  Fig.  62  (right),  first  summer's  growth  in  the 
orchard,  and  first  winter  pruning  (December).  Compare  Figures  59  and  60. 


Wickson's  "California  Fruits" 

FIG.  63.     Second  year  in  orchard  :  second  summer's  growth  (September) ; 
second  winter  pruning  (December). 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Tree 
surgery 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  64.     Pruning  tools:   curved  blade  saw,  hedge  shears,  and  long-  and 
short-handled  lopping  shears. 

broken  by  the  wind,  it  may  often  be  repaired  so  that  it 
will  recover  from  the  injury.  Figure  67  shows  methods 
of  "  tree  surgery,"  which  may  add  many  years  to  the 
life  of  a  valuable  tree. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Test  one  hundred  of  each  of  several  different  kinds  of  seeds. 

2.  Before  the  first  heavy  frost,  select  several  of  the  best  ears 
of  corn  you  can  find  and  store  them  in  one  of  the  ways  described 
in  this  chapter. 

3.  To  test  the  proper  depth  of  planting,  plant  in  the  garden  a 
few  seeds  of  each  of  several  different  crop  plants :  barely  cover  a 
few  seeds  of  each  variety ;   cover  a  few  of  each  half  an  inch  deep, 
a  few  of  each  an  inch  deep,  then  others  two,  three,  four,  five,  and 
six  inches. 

4.  See  how  many  different  kinds  of  plants  you  can  make  grow 
from  cuttings,  following  the  directions  given  in  this  chapter. 


Propagation  and  Care  of  Plants 


FIG.  65.     Oil  heaters  in  use  in  an  orchard. 


r.  stilling 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  66.  One  morning,  at  daybreak,  the  Fahrenheit  thermometer  registered 
39  degrees  above  zero  on  top  of  this  bridge,  and  there  was,  of  course,  no  frost 
at  that  level ;  but  in  the  valley  below  the  thermometer  registered  29  degrees, 
and  there  was  a  heavy  frost. 


86 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


PREVENT  A  SPLIT  OR 
MEND  A  SPLIT  BY  CHAIN 
&  BOLTS,  NOT  BY  A  BAND, 
SEE    I. 


A  DECAYED  BRANCH 
AS  C,  CUT  OFF  & 
THE  CAVITY  CLEANED 
ft    FILLED. 


STUB 
TOO  LONG 
FOR  HEAL- 
THY 

HEALING 
AND  DECAY 
WORKS 

INWARD. 


A  LONG  STUB  LEFT, 
DECAY  HAS  SET  IN 
ft  IFNOT,  TREATED 
AS  AT  M  WILL 
DESTROY  THE  MAIN 
LIMB. 


A    PRUNING 
WOUND  MADE 


HEALING 
fECTLY. 


A  SOLID  BAR  WITH 
NUTS  WILL  HOLD  A 
WEAKENED  CROTCH 
THOUGH,  IN  A  BIG  TREE 
NOT  SO  WELL  AS  A 
CHAIN.  SEE  A.  . 


WHEN  A  LIMB   IS 
REMOVED  AND  THERE 
IS  SLIGHT  DECAY,  CLEAN 
OUT  THE  WOUND  &  TAR 
BUT  DO  NOT  FILL  IT. 


BAND.  THE    TREE 


CHOKED.  SEEA&Dl 


TREAT  A  BRUISE  AS 
H  BY  CUTTING  OUT 
INJURED  TISSUE, 
LEAVING  -SURFACE  ft 
EDGES   SMOOTH.  TAR 
BUT  DO  NOT  TILL. 


OR  BRUISE  TO  BE 


A.  LARGE  CAVITY 
PROPERLY  FILLED 
WITH  CONCRETE. 


FIG.  67.     Methods  of  tree  surgery. 


j.  W.  Gregg 


Propagation  and  Care  of  "Plants  87 

5.  Prove  the  need  of  underdrainage  by  planting  seeds  in  two 
cans,  only  one  of  which  has  holes  punched  in  the  bottom.     Keep 
both  thoroughly  watered. 

6.  Try  to  make  vines  take  root  by  layering  them. 

7.  Following  the  directions  that  have  been  given,  see  if  you  can 
successfully  bud  and  graft  rose  bushes  or  young  trees. 

8.  Start  a  little  nursery  at  school  or  at  home  by  planting  peach 
pits  in  spring.     The  next  spring,  bud  the  seedlings. 

9.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  ways  by  which  plants  are  multiplied, 
as  mentioned  in  this  chapter.     See  if  you  can  find  some  example  of 
each  in  your  neighborhood. 

References 

"School  Exercises  in  Plant  Production."     Farmers'  Bulletin  408. 
"Pruning."     Farmers'  Bulletin  181. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 

THE   IMPROVEMENT   OF   CROP   PLANTS 

Whoever  makes  two  blades  of  grass  grow  on  a  spot  of  ground  where 
only  one  grew  before  deserves  well  of  mankind. 

JONATHAN  SWIFT 

THE  term  "  plant  improvement  "  does  not  refer  to 
the  improvement  that  is  made  by  giving  the  crops  better 
care  and  richer  soil.  It  refers  to  the  development  of 
better  varieties  which,  with  equally  good  care  and  soil, 
will  yield  more  profitable  crops  than  the  old  varieties. 

Improved          The  fine  mellow  apples  which  we  enjoy  today  are 

fa^'  le  known  to  be  descended  from  very  different  apples  that 
were  cultivated  by  the  Romans.  Those  earlier  apples 
grew  in  clusters  instead  of  singly,  and  they  were  very 
small.  Pliny,  the  Roman  naturalist,  describes  them 
as  being  sour  enough  to  take  the  edge  off  a  knife.  Both 

The  potato;  the  potato  and  the  tomato  as  found  growing  in  America 
when  Europeans  came  were  much  inferior  to  those  we 
now  have.  The  wild  types  of  both  of  these  still  grow  in 
South  America,  and  they  are  scarcely  fit  for  human 
food.  Figure  68  shows  the  wild  tomato  from  which 
the  cultivated  varieties  have  been  derived.  It  grows 
\  under  almost  desert  conditions  and  abundantly  bears 
fruit  of  the  size  of  a  marble. 

Methods  Seed  selection  and  plant  breeding.     It  is  not  only 

interesting  but  it  is  important  for  us  to.  know  the  methods 
by  which  improvements  have  been  made  in  crop  plants, 
for  if  we  know  what  has  been  done  we  shall  be  better 
able  to  do  our  share  in  carrying  the  work  of  improve- 
ment still  farther.  Two  principal  methods  have  been 

88 


The  Improvement  of  Crop  Plants 


employed.  They  are 
seed  selection  and  plant 
breeding. 

The  earliest  accurate 
record  we  have  of  crops 
being  improved  by  selec- 
tion of  seed  from  the 
best  plants  dates  back 
about  one  hundred 
years.  At  that  time  a 
botanist  was  visiting  a 
farmer  who  lived  on  the 
island  of  Jersey  in  the 
English  Channel.  The 
botanist  examined  the 
farmer's  growing  wheat 
and  found  that  many 
slightly  different  varie- 
ties were  growing  to- 
gether in  the  same  field.  The  farmer  thought  that  he 
had  only  one  kind  of  wheat,  but  the  botanist  was  able 
to  gather  heads  of  twenty-three  types  from  one  field. 
Some  of  these  were  better  than  others,  and  it  occurred 
to  the  farmer  that  if  he  could  get  rid  of  the  poorer  types 
and  raise  only  the  best,  instead  of  a  mixture,  his  profits 
would  be  greater.  After  the  departure  of  his  visitor,  the 
farmer  planted  the  twenty-three  heads  of  wheat  in  sepa- 
rate plots.  When  these  were  grown,  he  saved  the, seed 
from  the  plots  that  seemed  better  than  the  others  and 
replanted  it ;  and  so  he  continued  to  do  year  after  year. 
He  soon  had  enough  seed  of  the  selected  varieties  for 


Journal  of  Heredity 

FIG.  68.  The  seedy  and  acrid  little  fruits 
of  the  wild  tomato  (about  one  fourth 
natural  size). 


Plant 
improve- 
ment by 
selection 


How  a 
farmer  in 
the  Isle  of 
Jersey  got 
unmixed 
varieties  of 
wheat 


9o 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  work  of 
Swedish 
experi- 
menters 


How 

American 
wheat  was 
improved 


his  own  planting  and  for  sale  to  his  neighbors.  One 
of  these  types  is  still  grown  in  parts  of  England  and 
France.  (Exp.  i.) 

Since  this  Isle  of'  Jersey  farmer  conducted  his  ex- 
periments, much  similar  work  has  been  done  both  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe.  At  one  experiment  station 
in  Sweden  the  seed  from  two  thousand  different  plants 
was  saved  and  planted  in  as  many  separate  plots.  There 
were  more  than  four  hundred  heads  of  oats,  each  of  a 
different  type ;  hundreds  of  types  of  wheat,  rye,  and 
other  grains ;  and  peas  and  other  seeds  as  well.  These 
two  thousand  different  kinds  of  seeds  were  planted 
in  separate  plots,  and  careful  record  was  kept  of  the 
behavior  of  the  plants  in  each  plot  from  the  time  of 
planting  until  the  seed  was  ripe.  Different  charac- 
teristics were  shown.  For  example,  some  wheat  grew 
taller  than  other  wheat;  some  bore  more  kernels  or 
larger  kernels ;  some  developed  stronger  stems,  which 
were  not  so  easily  beaten  down  by  wind  and  rain ;  some 
stood  the  frost  of  winter  better  than  others ;  some  were 
not  so  subject  to  disease ;  some  ripened  early  and  some 
late.  From  the  different  varieties  the  best  were  selected ; 
the  seed  was  multiplied  by  replanting,  and  finally  it 
was  distributed  to  the  farmers  of.  Sweden  to  plant. 

In  America  the  most  valuable  work  in  seed  selection 
has  been  done  with  wheat  and  corn.  At  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station,  Professor  Hays,  by  the  methods 
used  in  Europe,  separated  several  types  of  wheat  from 
the  common  varieties  grown  in  the  state.  These  proved 
to  be  heavier  yielders  than  the  mixtures  of  which  the 
old  varieties  consisted. 


The  Improvement  of  Crop  Plants  91 

Dr.  Eugene  Davenport,  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Work 
Station,  led  the  way  in  seed  corn  selection.  He  planted 
the  seed  from  each  plant  in  a  separate  plot,  as  the  ex- 
perimenters with  small  grains  had  done.  But  he  found 
that  several  years  of  selection  were  required  in  order  to 
fix  the  characters-  he  wished  to  secure  so  that  the  good 
qualities  for  which  he  was  striving  might  not  be  lost  in 
future  generations  of  the  corn. 

In  Europe  not  much  corn  is  raised,   and  there  the   Why  even 
farmers  have  been  more  interested  in  the  improvement 


of  the  small  grains.     But  the  United  States  produces  meni  ™ 

annually  a  billion  or  more  dollars'  worth  of  corn,  and 

even  a  very  slight  increase  in  the  crop  would  mean 

an  addition  of  millions  of  dollars  to  the  total  value. 

Most  farmers  consider  forty  bushels  an  acre  a  good 

crop  ;    but  by  the  use  of  improved  methods,  yields  of 

one  hundred  and  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre  have  been 

secured,  and  even  larger  yields  have  been  reported  (Fig. 

69).     In  view  of  the  rewards  for  success,  corn  growers 

have  been  stimulated  to  great  efforts  to  make  their  fields 

yield  more.     In  the  states  of  the  Middle  West  and  the 

South,  where  most  of  the  corn  is  raised,  clubs  have  been  Corn  clubs 

formed  among  farmers  and  among  boys  in  the  schools  for 

a  study  of  the  best  methods  of  raising  corn. 

To  show  the  advantage  resulting  from  the  use  of  good  A  proof 
seed,  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  took  more  than  five 
thousand  samples  of  seed  corn  that  farmers  were  using, 
raised  each  sample  in  a  separate  plot,  and  compared  the 
yields.  Conditions  and  treatment  were  the  same  for 
all  plots.  The  production  averaged  sixty-seven  bushels 
to  the  acre  on  the  best  five  hundred  plots  and  forty-  two 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Managing 
a  seed-corn 
plot 


A  great 
service  that 
a  boy  may 
render 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  69.  Jerry  Moore,  of  Florence  County,  South  Carolina.  Jerry  is  a  wide- 
awake farmer.  South  Carolina  soil  returned  him  one  of  the  heaviest  yields  of 
corn  that  has  ever  been  reported. 

bushels  to  the  acre  on  the  poorest  five  hundred.  A 
difference,  like  this,  of  twenty-five  bushels  in  the  yield 
of  each  acre  is  sufficient  to  repay  any  care  that  may 
be  taken  in  the  selection  and  testing  of  seed. 

For  selection  to  improve  seed  corn,  plots  large  enough 
to  contain  a  hundred  or  more  rows  with  a  hundred  hills 
each  are  laid  out.  The  seed  ears  are  selected  from  the 
best  ears  that  the  fields  have  produced,  and  each  row 
is  planted  with  seed  from  a  single  ear.  When  this 
seed  crop  is  ripe,  the  yield  from  each  row  is  gathered 
separately  and  weighed.  Ears  from  rows  that  have 
produced  the  most  corn  are  used  for  seed  (Fig.  70) . 

Every  county  in  the  corn  belt  should  have  its  seed- 
corn  specialist  who  will  provide  better  seed  than  the 
farmers,  as  a  rule,  will  take  the  pains  to  develop.  The 


The  Improvement  of  Crop  Plants 


93 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  70.     An  ear-to-a-row  test  of  corn. 


Department    of    Agriculture    recommends    that    boys 
undertake  this  work. 

The  sweetest  sugar  beets  are  selected  to  be  saved  for  How  sugar 
seed  by  taking  a  plug  from  each  one  and  testing  it  for  selected 
sugar.     Since  the  beet-sugar  industry  began,  beets  have 
been  improved  until  they  now  contain  sixteen  per  cent 
of  sugar  instead  of  six  per  cent,  as  they  did  fifty  years 
ago.     Thus  the  amount  of  sugar  that  can  be  made  from 
them  has  been  more  than  doubled. 

The  ter.m  "  hybridization  "  is  applied  to  the  pro-  Hybridiza- 
duction  of  a  new  kind  of  plant  by  putting  the  pollen 
from  one  plant  on  the  stigma  of  another  of  a  somewhat 
different  kind.  (Exp.  2.)  The  seed  of  the  flower 
thus  pollinated  will  produce  plants  somewhat  resembling 
both  of  the  parent  plants.  A  plant  produced  in  this 


tion 


94 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Pollinating 
a  flower 


FIGS.  71  and  72.  Pollination:  Fig.  71  (left),  the  complete  flower;  Fig.  72 
(right),  applying  the  pollen  by  hand.  The  stamens  were  removed  from  this 
flower  before  it  could  develop  its  own  pollen. 

way  is  called  a  "  hybrid  "  or  "  cross  "  and  corresponds 
to  a  cross-bred  animal,  —  that  is,  one  whose  parents  are 
of  different  breeds. 

Pollination  by  hand  is  quite  possible  for  any  one. 
The  flower  that  is  to  be  pollinated  is  opened  while  in 
the  burl  stage  and  its  stamens  are  removed  in  order 
that  its  own  pollen  may  not  reach  the  stigma.  A  small 
paper  bag  is  then  tied  over  the  flower  so  that  pollen  from 
other  flowers  may  not  be  blown  on  it.  At  the  proper 
time  —  that  is,  when  the  stigma  is  full-grown  and  ripe 
—  the  bag  is  removed  and  the  pollen  from  the  selected 
flower  is  sprinkled  or  rubbed  on  the  stigma  (Figs.  71 
and  72).  The  bag  is  replaced  and  left  on  till  there  is 


The  Improvement  of  Crop  Plants  95 

no   danger  that    the  flower  will   receive  other  pollen. 
(Exp.  3.) 

Plants   entirely  different  from  one   another,   as   the  Plants  that 
peach  and  the  apple,  cannot  be  made  to  cross.     The  crossed 
pollen  of  one  has  no  more  effect  on  the  stigma  of  the 
other  than  so  much  dust  would  have. 

Peculiarities    in    the    reproduction    of    some    plants.   Special 
Corn  bears  two  flowers  on  the  same  stalk,  —  the  tassel,    ?n  ™atuml 
furnishing  the  pollen,  and   the  ear,  bearing   the  ovules  pollination: 
(Fig.   73  and  Exp.  5).     Each  grain  of  corn  has  a  silk   (a)  of  corn 
attached  to  it,  the  end  of  which  projects  from  the  husk 
(Fig.  74).     Extending  down  the  side  of  each  silk  is  the 
stigma  upon  which  a  grain  of  pollen  must  fall  and  send 
its  pollen  tube  all  the  way  back  to  the  ovule.     If  a  grain 
is  shrunken  on  the  cob,  it  is  because  no  pollen  grain 
reached  it.     The  side  of  a  cornfield  that  faces  the  wind 
is  sometimes  poorly  pollinated  and  therefore  will  not 
bear  well.     A  single  stalk  or  a  single  row  of  corn  will  not 
do  well  for  the  same  reason. 

In  some  plants  pollen  would  be  injured  by  dew,  and   (6)  of  other 
the  petals  close  at  night  for  its  protection.     In  many  po 
plants  the  pollen  must  be  carried  to  its  destination  by  in- 
sects.    Two  kinds  of  some  plants  must  be  near  together, 
because  one  furnishes  the  pollen  for  the  other.     This 
is  the  case  with  some  strawberries  (Figs.  75  and  76). 
Squashes  and  melons  bear  fruit  and  pollen  on  separate 
flowers,  but  both  kinds  of  flowers  are  on  the  same  vine 
(Figs.  77  and  78). 

New  varieties  of  potatoes  may  be  secured  by  planting  Seedling 
potato  seed  (not  "  eyes."  See  page  135).  But  al-  varieiies: 
though  potatoes  often  blossom,  they  seldom  make  any 


96 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


FIG.  73.    The  two  flowers  of  corn. 


W.  T.  Shilling 


W.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  74.     An  ear  of  corn  with  husk  removed,  showing  a  style  (corn  silk) 
attached  to  each  grain. 


The  Improvement  of  Crop  Plants  97 


U.  S.  D.A. 

FIGS.  75  and  76.  A  perfect  strawberry  flower  and  an  imperfect  one :  Fig.  75 
(left),  flower  with  both  pollen  and  stigma;  Fig.  76  (right),  flower  with- 
out pollen  —  only  stigma. 

seed.  Edward  F.  Bigelow,  a  naturalist  of  Sound  (a)  of 
Beach,  Connecticut,  managed  to  collect  potato  seed  p 
from  almost  every  state  in  the  Union  and  planted  it. 
The  result  is  shown  in  Figure  79.  This  is  the  second 
year's  crop.  The  first  year  the  potatoes  were  about 
/  the  size  of  peas.  The  replanting  (from  eyes)  must  be 
continued  for  several  years  yet  before  it  can  be  known 
whether  or  not  any  of  the  varieties  will  be  desirable. 
It  is  said  that  Luther  Burbank,  when  a  young  man, 
originated  the  Burbank  potato  by  planting  seed  that  he 
chanced  to  find  on  a  potato  vine. 

Seedling  fruit  trees  differ  from  the  parent  tree.  And  (6)  of  fruit 
if  an  orchard  were  set  out  with  seedlings  from  the 
same  tree,  every  seedling  might  be  different  from 
all  the  others.  Whenever  a  seedling  tree  is  found 
that  has  exceptionally  good  fruit,  it  can  be  perpetuated 
as  a  new  variety  by  grafting  its  buds  into  other  seed- 
lings. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


W.  T.  Sklllinj 

FIGS.  77  and  78.  Squash  flowers :  Fig.  77  (left),  two  flowers  with  fruit  and  one 
with  pollen  only;  Fig.  78  (right),  flowers  with  corollas  removed.  Flower  at 
left  has  pollen  only.  Flower  at  right  has  stigma,  but  no  pollen. 

Origin  of  The  importation  of  desirable  plants.  The  United 
^gtonnavel  States  -Department  of  Agriculture  is  continually  testing 
orange  new  plants  brought  from  other  countries.  The  navel 
orange  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  fruits  that  it  has 
imported.  In  1870  an  agent  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  brought  from  Brazil  some  little  orange 
trees  of  a  variety  much  liked  in  that  country.  These 
were  taken  to  a  greenhouse  in  Washington,  where  they 
were  multiplied  by  budding  on  orange  seedlings.  Two 
budded  trees  thus  secured  were  in  1873  sent  to  Mrs. 
Tibbets,  at  Riverside,  California.  As  socn  as  these 
trees  bore  fruit,  the  California  orange  growers  saw  that 
they  were  finer  than  any  variety  then  grown,  and  they 
at  once  began  to  take  buds  from  them  to  graft  into 
their  seedlings.  These  grafted  trees,  of  course,  bore 


The  Improvement  of  Crop  Plants  99 


Edward  F.  Blgelow 
FIG.  79.     Potatoes  derived  from  seed  from  almost  every  state  in  the  Union. 


FIG.  80. 


Transplanting  one  of  the  two  original  Washington  navel  orange  trees. 
President  Roosevelt  is  shown  using  the  spade. 


ioo  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

How  it  was    the  same  excellent  kind  of  fruit,  and  buds  taken  from 
multiplied     faem  were  use(j  to  Spreac[  the  new  variety  still  further. 
The  Washington  navel  orange  remains  the  most  popu- 
lar variety  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  yielding  millions  of 
dollars'  worth  of  fruit  every  year  (Fig.  80). 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Look  through  a  field  or  garden  to  see  if  you  can  find  plants 
which  differ  from  one  another  in  ways  that  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  such  influences  as  more  or  less  room,  different  soil,  cultiva- 
tion, etc. 

2.  Examine   several  different  flowers,   especially  the   ovules, 
stigma,  and  pollen  of  each. 

3.  Cross-pollinate   two    related    plants,   as  watermelon    and 
citron.     Next  year  plant  a  seed  thus  produced. 

4.  Plant  together  pop  corn  and  field  corn,  or  red  and  white 
corn. 

References 

"How  to  Grow  an  Acre  of  Corn."     Farmers'  Bulletin  537. 
"Seed  Corn."     Farmers'  Bulletin  415. 


CHAPTER   EIGHT 

FARM   MANAGEMENT   AND   FARM   CROPS 

I  should  regard  the  most  valuable  of  all  arts  to  be  the  deriving  of  a 
comfortable  existence  from  the  smallest  area  of  soil. 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 

THE  farmer,  like  any  other  business  man,  must  plan  Planning 
his  work  wisely  in  order  to  be  ^uccessful,  and  to  plan  ft 
wisely  he  must  understand  the  principles  of  farm  man-  io. }e  c°n- 

r  sidered 

agement.  This  old  subject  has  been  given  a  great  deal 
of  attention  during  recent  years.1  Among  other  things, 
it  takes  into  account  matters  like  the  following :  (i)  What 
to  raise,  whether  one  kind  of  crop  or  several  kinds. 
(2)  Whether  it  will  be  the  more  profitable  to  feed  crops 
to  stock  or  to  sell  the  crops.  (3)  How  to  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  land. 

The  selection  of  the  kinds  of  crops  most  profitable  to  The  choice 
raise  depends  mainly  on  climate  and  soil.  But  the  °* crops 
selection  should  depend  also  upon  the  prospect  of  a  good 
market.  As  a  rule  the  crops  most  generally  raised  in 
a  community  sell  best,  for  buyers  of  particular  crops 
go  where  they  can  secure  large  quantities  of  those  crops. 
There  are  advantages  in  raising  several  crops  at  once 
instead  of  one,  as  so  many  cotton  and  wheat  planters  do. 
If  one  crop  fails,  the  others,  perhaps,  will  not.  More- 
over, raising  several  crops  permits  of  rotation,  and  it 
distributes  the  labor  of  the  farm  over  a  longer  period 
of  the  year,  and  so  helps  to  do  away  with  periods  of 
overwork  and  idleness. 

1  Professor  W.  J.  Spillman  and  Professor  G.  F.  Warren  have  done 
much  to  advance  this  subject  and  to  make  clear  its  importance. 

101 


/ 

102 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Four 

advantages 

arising 

from 

rotation 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  81.     A  catch  crop  of  cowpeas  in  corn.     The  cowpeas  will  furnish  feed 
for  stock,  and,  being  legumes,  they  will  improve  the  soil. 

Rotation  of  crops.  Raising  different  crops  in  suc- 
cession on  the  same  land  (rotation)  is  better  than  raising 
one  crop  continuously,  for  several  reasons :  (i)  Insects 
and  fungous  diseases  die  out  of  the  soil  where  the  crop 
upon  which  they  live  is  changed.  (2)  If  wheat  or  other 
small  grain  is  raised  continually  for  several  years,  the 
land  becomes  foul  with  weeds  which  ripen  seed  after 
the  grain  is  cut.  A  cultivated  crop  such  as  corn,  rotated 
with  wheat,  gives  an  opportunity  to  kill  the  weeds. 
(3)  Crops  like  wheat  remove  large  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen and  other  plant-food  materials  from  the  soil.  Rotat- 
ing such  crops  with  legumes  (as  clover)  will  restore 
nitrogen  and  allow  some  of  the  other  plant  foods  to 
accumulate. 

The  following  diagram  indicates  the  manner  in  which 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       103 


crop  rotation  is  often  carried  out  on  Southern  farms.  A  Southern 
A,  B,  and  C  represent  the  fields  into  which  a  farm  is 
divided.  There  are  three  principal  crops,  and  each  of 
these  is  raised  in  a  different  field  each  year.  Cowpeas  are 
planted  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  and  are  either 
harvested  with  the  cornstalks  for  hay,  pastured  off,  or 
plowed  under  (Fig.  81).  During  the  fourth  year  the 
arrangement  of  crops  is  the  same  as  it  was  during  the 
first  year. 


FIRST  YEAR 


A   THREE-YEAR   ROTATION 


SECOND  YEAR 


THIRD  YEAR 


Cotton 

< 
3 

H 

£ 

H 

1 
U 

Q 
3 

H 
£ 

Winter  oats  fol- 
lowed by  cowpeas 

< 
3 
1 

« 

1 

£ 
u 

S 
fi 

Corn  with  cow- 
peas 

Corn  with  cow- 
peas 

Cotton 

Winter  oats  fol- 
lowed by  cowpeas 

Winter  oats  fol- 
lowed by  cowpeas 

Corn  with  cow- 
peas 

Cotton 

In  the  corn  belt  a  crop  series  often  used  on  farms  where 
much  livestock  is  kept  is  (i)  corn,  (2)  oats,  (3)  wheat, 
(4)  timothy  and  clover.  A  common  New  England  dairy- 
farm  rotation  is  (i)  corn,  (2)  oats  (often  sown  with  cow- 
peas)  ,  and  (3)  two  years  of  timothy  and  clover.  (Exp.  i .) 

The  relative  importance  of  the  principal  farm  products 
of  the  United  States  is  shown  by  the  figures  for  1917, 
given  on  the  following  page.  The  first  column  of  figures 
gives  the  total  value  of  each  crop  produced,  and  the 
second  column  (given  to  aid  the  memory)  shows  how 
much  of  this  value  each  person  in  this  country  would 


A   corn-belt 
and  a 
dairy-farm 
rotation 


Field  crops 
produced 
during  one 
year 


IO4 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  leading 

American 

crop 


have  received  if  the  crop  had  been  divided  equally 
among  our  one  hundred  million  inhabitants  (Fig.  82 
and  Exp.  2). 


(i)  CROP 

(2)   TOTAL  VALUE 

(3)  VALUE 
PER  CAPITA 

(4)  QUANTITY  PRODUCED 

Corn    
Cotton    (fiber   and 
seed)     .... 

Wheat      .... 
Hay     

Oats 

$4,053,672,000 
1,866,240,000 

1,307,418,000 
1,359,491,000 
i  06  1  427  ooo 

$40.00 
18.00 

13.00 
13.00 

IO  OO 

3,159,494,000  bu. 

11,449,930  bales 
(500  Ib.  each) 
650,828,000  bu. 
79,528,000  tons 
1,587  286  ooo  bu 

Potatoes  .... 
Tobacco   .... 
Barley      .... 
Sugar  
Rve 

543,865,000 

297,442,000 

237,539,000 
173,490,000 

100  025  ooo 

5.00 

3-oo 
2-37 
1-73 

I  OO 

442,536,000  bu. 
1,196,451,000  Ib. 
208,975,000  bu. 
2,263,113,000  Ib. 
60  145  ooo  bu 

Rice     .... 

68  717  ooo 

68 

51,007,722,222  Ib. 

Buckwheat    .     .     . 
Flaxseed  .... 

27,954,000 
25,148,000 

.28 
•25 

17,460,000  bu. 
8,473,000  bu. 

Total    crops    pro- 
duced        .     .     . 
Total  animal  prod- 
ucts .     .     .     .  •  . 

$13,610,463,000 
5,833,386,000 

$136.00 
58.00 

Total    farm    prod- 
ucts .     .     .     .     . 

$19,443,849,000 

$194.00 

To  secure  the  highest  success  in  raising  any  crop, 
the  farmer  should  make  it  the  subject  of  careful  study. 
Here,  only  a  little  can  be  said  about  several  of  the  more 
important  crops.  (Exp.  3.) 

Corn.  In  the  United  States  corn  has  been  called 
the  "  king  "  of  crops.  As  shown  by  the  figures  that 
have  been  given,  the  value  of  corn  is  several  times  as 
great  as  that  of  any  other  crop,  and  the  quantity  raised 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  all  the  other  grains  together. 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       105 


it? 


W.  T.  SkillinO 

FIG.  82.     The  amounts  of  the  principal  grains  raised  in  the  United  States 
shown  relatively  for  1917  :  C,  corn;  0,  oats;  W,  wheat;  B,  bar  ley;  R,  rye.    t 

Its  chief  use  is  as  feed  for  livestock,  and  about  eighty 

per  cent  of  it  is  fed  in  the  neighborhood  where  it  is  raised. 

Only  about  two  per  cent  is  exported.     Corn  is  a  native  Its  origin 

of  America.     The  Indians  (who  called  it  "  maize,"  as 

people  in  other  countries  continue  to  do)  were  growing 

it  when  the  early  explorers  came.     It  is  supposed  to 

be  a  descendant  of  a  tall,  grasslike  plant  of  tropical 

America.     Perhaps  this  explains  why  it  does  best  in  a 

climate  where   there  are    hot   days  and  nights  during 

the  growing  season  (Fig.  83). 

Since  aboi^t  fifteen  large  ears  of  corn  (five  quarts  Planting 
shelled)  are  enough  to  plant  an  acre,  it  is  easy  to  select 
the  seed  with  care,  as  directed  in  Chapter  Seven.  It  has 
been  found  that  corn  will  yield  a  little  better  if  it  is 
planted  in  drills  rather  than  in  hills ;  that  is,  one  grain 
in  a  place  and  not  several  grains  together.  But  if  corn 


and  care 


Hills  or 
drills 


io6 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Nature  Study  Renew 

FIG.  83.     Seven  different  kinds  (species)  of  corn:   pop,  flint,  dent,  soft, 
sweet,  pod,  and  branched  (left  to  right). 


is  planted  in  hills  with  rows  running  both  ways,  it  is 
easier  to  keep  the  field  free  from  weeds.  To  have  the 
right  number  of  stalks  in  the  row  and  an  even  stand  — 
no  vacant  spaces  —  is  very  important.  It  is  the  safer 
way,  though  it  requires  more  work,  to  plant  too  thick 
and  then  thin  to  the  required  number  of  stalks,  leaving 
the  strongest.  About  ten  thousand  stalks  to  the  acre 
is  considered  the  right  number  in  fertile,  well-watered 

Spacing  soil.  This  number  will  be  secured  if  the  rows  are  three 
and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  the  hills  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart j  with  an  average  of  three  stalks  to  the  hill. 
On  poorer  land  two  stalks  to  the  hill,  or  about  seven 
thousand  stalks  to  the  acre,  will  give  a  better  yield. 
If  planted  in  drills,  the  stalks  should  be  about  fifteen 
inches  apart  to  give  ten  thousand  to  the  acre,  and 
twenty  inches  apart  to  give  seven  thousand. 

Depth  From  two  to  four  inches  is  a  suitable  depth  at  which 

to  plant  corn.  Dry  climates  require  the  greater  depth 
(Fig.  84). 

Cultivation        Shallow  cultivation  of  corn  is  best,  for  the  roots  are 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       107 


spread  out  near  the  sur- 
face (Fig.  85).  Little 
moisture  is  lost  from  the 
surface  in  a  cornfield,  for 
the  roots  absorb  it.  But, 
until  late  in  the  season, 
there  must  be  frequent 
cultivation  to  keep  the 
field  free  from  weeds. 
That,  cultivation  is 
mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  killing  weeds  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  corn 
will  yield  about  as  well 
if  the  weeds  are  scaled 
off  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground  as  if  the 
field  is  cultivated  in  the 
usual  way  (Figs.  86  and 

87). 

In  order  to  cover  the 
roots  to  a  greater  depth, 
a  lister  is  often  used  in 

dry  regions.  The  lister  is  a  plow  that  throws  the 
dirt  in  both  directions  at  once,  making  deep  furrows 
with  high  ridges  between.  The  corn  is  planted  in  the 
furrows,  and  as  it  grows  the  dirt  is  cultivated  down 
into  the  furrows,  burying  the  roots  very  deeply.  Listing 
is  much  faster  than  ordinary  plowing,  but  it  does  not 
loosen  all  the  ground. 


W.  T.  Skilling 
FIG.  84.     A  hand  corn  planter. 


Listing 


io8 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The 


Varieties; 

when 

planted 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  85.  Root  distribution  of  corn  at  silking  time.  The  bottom  of  the  board 
represents  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  cultivator  should  have  many  small 
shovels  like  those  indicated  at  the  right  of  the  picture,  rather  than  a  few  large 
shovels  like  the  one  shown  cutting  a  root  at  the  left. 

Wheat.1  Throughout  the  world,  wheat  is  more  gen- 
erally raised  than  any  other  cereal.  It  does  well  in  any 
temperate  climate  and  stands  drought  fairly  well.  The 
United  States  ranks  first  in  its  production,  and  it  is 
one  of  our  chief  exports.  Russia  produces  nearly  as 
much  as  we  do.  Our  average  per  acre  is  only  about 
fourteen  bushels,  while  in  parts  of  Europe  where  the 
farms  are  small  and  very  carefully  tilled  the  average  is 
more  than  twice  what  it  is  here. 

There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  wheat,  but  they 
may  all  be  grouped  under  two  headings,  —  (a)  winter 
wheat,  (b)  spring  wheat.  The  former  is  planted  in 

1  The  coin  with  head  of  wheat,  shown  on  the  copy  right  "page  of  this 
book,  was  struck  by  a  Greek  city  in  southern  Italy  more  than  2400 
years  ago. 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       109 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  86.     Corn  kept  free  from  weeds  by  scraping  the  surface  of  the  soil. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  87.     Corn  treated  like  that  in  Figure  86,  except  that  weeds  were 
allowed  to  grow. 


no 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Conditions 
in  North 
and  South 


How  durum 
wheat  was 
found 


FIG. 


W.  T.  SUlling 
Sheaves  of  barley,  rye,  and  wheat  (left  to  right). 


September  or  October  and,  after  coming  up  during  the 
mild  autumn  weather,  becomes  covered  with  snow  and 
so  lies  dormant  but  green  until  spring,  when  it  begins 
to  grow  again. 

In  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
the  weather  is  too  cold  for  wheat  to  live  through  the 
winter,  and  only  spring  varieties  can  be  grown.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  wheat  belt,  even  spring  wheat 
will  live  through  the  winter  and  is  sometimes  sown  in 
the  fall. 

In  1898,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  sent  an  ex- 
plorer to  Russia  to  look  for  new  varieties  of  wheat. 
He  brought  home  seed  of  durum  wheat,  which  has  been 
found  to  resist  drought  better  than  any  other  variety. 
It  contains  less  starch  and  more  of  the  muscle-building 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       in 

protein  than  common  wheat.  It  is  harder  to  grind  and 
more  sticky  when  made  into  dough.  But  its  stickiness 
makes  it  so  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni 
and  spaghetti  that  American  macaroni  is  fast  displacing 
the  imported  article.  Bread  made  ffOm  durum  wheat 
flour  is  more  nutritious  than  other  bread,  but  it  has  a 
slightly  yellowish  color. 

The  two  chief  insect  enejnies  of  wheat  are  the  Enemies 
chinch  bug  and  the  Hessian  fly  (Figs.  89  and  90). 
The  experiment  stations  of  the  Middle  West  breed 
the  germs  of  a  disease  that  is  very  destructive  to 
chinch  bugs.  They  distribute  these  germs  to  farmers 
whose  fields  are  attacked.  If  the  season  is  a  wet 
one,  the  disease  will  destroy  most 
of  the  bugs.  In  dry  seasons  it 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIGS.  89  and  90.  Two  of  the  worst  crop  pests :  Fig.  89  (left),  the  adult  long- 
winged  form  of  the  chinch  bug,  much  enlarged.  The  chinch  bug  is  especially 
the  enemy  of  small  grains  and  forage  crops.  Fig.  90  (right),  the  adult  male 
form  of  the  Hessian  fly,  much  enlarged.  This  wheat  pest  is  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  to  America  in  straw  supplied  to  the  Hessian  troops 
during  the  Revolution. 


112 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Controlling 
the  Hessian 

fly 


Methods 
of  harvest- 
ing 


International  Harvester  Co. 


FIG.  91.     The  first  reaper,  invented  by  Cyrus  McCormick  in  1831.     The 
reaper  has  helped  greatly  to  remove  the  dread  of  famine  from  the  world. 

does  not  have  much  effect.  Rotation  of  crops  holds 
the  chinch  bug  in  check. 

The  chinch  bug  is  a  sucking  insect  and  works  very 
much  as  plant  lice  do,  by  drawing  the  sap  from  the 
plant.  On  the  other  hand  the  Hessian  fly,  while  in 
the  larval  stage,  damages  the  wheat  by  boring  into  the 
stem  and  causing  the  plant  to  fall.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
delay  sowing  wheat  until  after  the  flies  have  been  killed 
by  the  early  autumn  frosts.  Another  way  of  holding 
the  Hessian  fly  in  check  is  to  burn  the  wheat  stubble. 
But  if  it  were  not  for  certain  parasitic  insects  that  live 
on  the  Hessian  fly  and  destroy  it,  we  should  probably  be 
unable  to  raise  much  wheat. 

In  ancient  times  a  sickle  was  used  to  cut  the  harvest. 
The  threshing  was  done  with  a  flail  or  by  the  trampling 
of  animals.  The  most  modern  implement  is  a  com- 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops        113 


bined  harvester  drawn  by  a  tractor  such  as  was  used 
for  the  army  tanks.  This  harvester  cuts  the  grain, 
threshes  and  sacks  it,  and  drops  the  sacks  off  in  piles 
as  it  moves  forward. 

Some  of  the  steps  between  these  two  methods  were,  Inventions 
first,  the  invention  of  a  scythe  with  a  cradle  attachment 
for  holding  the  grain  as  it  fell.  Then,  a  reaper  drawn 
by  a  horse.  A  man  walked  beside  the  reaper  and  raked 
the  grain  off  in  bunches  as  it  felf  on  a  platform  (Fig.  91). 
Later,  men  rode  on  the  reaper  and  bound  the  grain  as  it 
fell.  Then  the  self-binder  was  invented.  After  that 
came  the  combined  harvester  (Fig.  92). 

Alfalfa.     The  hay  crop,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  The  merits 
to  the  figures  given,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  crops  °* 
in  the  United  States.     Many  grasses  and  legumes  are 
used  as  hay,  but  alfalfa  is  superior  in  many  respects 
to  all  others.     It  is  a  legume,  and  therefore  is  rich  in 
protein,  the  feed  that  builds  muscle  in  growing  animals 


..'! 


FIG.  92.     A  combined  harvester  and  thresher  drawn  by  a  "caterpillar"  tractor. 
The  engine  does  the  work  of  25  or  30  horses. 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


The  soil 
it  needs 


and  makes  milk  in  dairy 
cows.  There  are  varie- 
ties of  it  that  do  well 
on  the  dry  lands  of  the 
West;  and  few  crops 
are  better  able  to  with- 
stand alkali  in  the  soil. 
Alfalfa  is  very  deep- 
rooted,  and  it  should 
have  soil  at  least  four 
feet  in  depth  (Fig.  93). 
The  soil  must  not  be 
sour.  Lime  should  be 
added  if  there  is  not 
already  plenty  in  the 
soil. 

Since  the  new  plants 
start  slowly,  the  seed 
should  be  put  into  very 
thoroughly  prepared 
soil,  as  free  as  possible 
from  weed  seeds.  Young 
alfalfa  plants  need  a 
compact  soil,  and  for 
this  reason,  after  plow- 
ing, the  ground  should  be  allowed  to  settle  for  several 
weeks  before  the  seed  is  sown. 

Inoculation  When  alfalfa  is  to  be  planted  in  a  field  for  the  first 
time,  it  is  advisable  to  inoculate  the  field  by  scattering 
over  and  harrowing  into  each  acre  three  or  four  hundred 
pounds  of  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field.  Or,  as  we  saw 


Preparing 
the  soil 


International  Harvester  Co. 

FIG.  93.     A  lo-foot  alfalfa  root.     (It  ex- 
tends parallel  to  the  spade  handle.) 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       115 


in  Chapter  Four,  instead  of  being  put  directly  into  the 
soil,  the  bacteria  may  be  put  on  the  seed  by  wetting  it 
with  a  liquid  containing  them.  Throughout  the  West 
the  bacteria  that  are  essential  to  the  success  of  the  crop 
are  quite  commonly  found  in  all  soil,  and  for  that  reason 
inoculation  is  not  so  necessary  there  as  in  the  East.  In 
California  the  bacteria  that  are  needed  grow  on  the 
roots  of  a  wild  legume  called  "  bur  clover." 

The  sorghums.     This  large  group  of  plants  includes   Varieties  of 
broom    corn,    the    sweet    sorghums,    kafir    corn,    milo,  sor9hum 
Egyptian  corn,  and  others  not  so  well  known.     Broom 
corn  does  not  make  good  feed  for  stock  and  it  is  raised 
only  for  the  long  brush  on  which  the  seed  grows.     The 


W.  T.  Skilllnff 

FIG.  94.  Important  sorghums:  broom  corn;  sweet  sorghums  (honey,  sumach, 
planter's  friend,  and  amber  —  sometimes  called  "  sugar  sorghums  ") ;  and  grain 
sorghums,  including  kafir  (red,  blackhull,  pink),  milo,  feterita,  Egyptian  corn, 
and  shallu. 


n6 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  grain 
sorghums 


Their 

behavior  in 
drought 


Danger  of 
poisoning 


Its  intro- 
duction 


Its  merits 


sugar  sorghums  are  use- 
ful as  feed  and  also  for 
making  sorghum  sirup. 
The  sweet  juice  of  the 
stalk  is  relished  by 
animals.  Kafir  corn, 
milo,  Egyptian  corn, 
and  some  other  varie- 
ties do  not  contain 
much  sugar  but  are 
very  useful  as  feed. 
They  are  spoken  of  as 
the  "  grain  sorghums  " 
(Figs.  94  and  95). 

The  great  value  of 
the  grain  sorghums  lies 
in  the  fact  that  they 
withstand  drought 
better  than  any  other 

important  crop.  Their  strong  root  systems  search,  the 
soil  very  thoroughly  for  moisture.  During  an  extreme 
drought  that  would  kill  other  crops,  their  leaves  curl, 
and  the  plants  do  not  grow  much;  but  when  rain 
comes  they  uncurl  their  leaves  and  begin  to  grow  again. 
When  growth  is  slow,  sorghum  sometimes  develops  a 
poison  called  "  prussic  acid  "  ;  so  there  is  danger  in  letting 
stock  into  a  field  on  a  hot,  dry  day,  or  late  in  the  fall 
after  a  stunted  second  growth  has  started. 

Sudan  grass.  This  grass  plant  (Fig.  96),  like  the 
grain  sorghums,  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
from  a  rather  dry  climate.  The  Department  of  Agri- 


W.  T.  SJcilling 

FIG.  95.     Milo  (short  and  thick  head)  and 
kafir  (long  and  slender  head). 


Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops       117 


Chamber  of  Commerce,  El  Centra,  Calif. 
FIG.  96.     Sudan  grass. 

culture  brought  it  from  the  Egyptian  Sudan  in  1909. 
Sudan  grass  is  closely  related  to  the  sorghums  and 
stands  drought  even  better  than  they  do.  Its  leaves 
are  sweet,  like  sweet  sorghum,  and  they  are  liked  by 
stock.  If  conditions  are  favorable,  the  yield  of  hay 
is  very  large,  sometimes  being  as  great  as  eight  tons 
to  the  acre. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

i.  Make  a  crop  rotation  plan  like  the  one  shown  in  the  dia- 
gram in  this  chapter,  but  make  it  for  crops  grown  in  your  neigh- 
borhood. 


n8  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

2.  In  the  order  of  their  importance  list  the  principal  farm  crops 
of  your  county.     Make  a  similar  list  of  farm  animals.     Where  is 
each  product  marketed  ? 

3.  Using  the  figures  in  the  third  column  of  the  table  of  farm 
products  on  page  104,  make  a  blackboard  diagram.     Draw  on  the 
blackboard  a  line  representing  each  number  in  the  column.     Let 
one  inch  represent  one  dollar. 

References 

"Corn  Cultivation."     Farmers'  Bulletin  414. 

"Smuts  of  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  and  Corn."  Farmers'  Bulletins  507 
and  939. 

"Better  Grain  Sorghum  Crops."     Farmers'  Bulletin  448. 

"The  Feeding  of  Grain  Sorghums  to  Livestock."  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin 724. 

"Alfalfa."     Farmers'  Bulletin  339. 

"Wheat."     Farmers'  Bulletins  616  and  678. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

VEGETABLE   GARDENING 

That  wonderful  gift  which  some  gardeners  seem  to  have  for  growing 
anything  is  no  magic ;  it  comes  from  the  love  of  plants.  .  .  .  And  that 
other  gift  for  making  a  garden  beautiful  is  no  magic  either ;  it  comes  of 
loving  the  garden  as  well  as  the  plants. 

Tropical  Agriculturist 

ON  many  farms  there  is  little  or  no  garden,  for  the  The  value 
farmer  finds  it  hard  to  take  part  of  his  own  time  or  that  °ln  ^ountry1 
of  his  men  from  the  fields.     He  says  that  he  can  buy  or  city 
vegetables  cheaper  than  he  can  raise  them.     The  usual 
result  of  not  raising  them,  however,  is  that  the  farmer's 
family    does    without    vegetables.     And    in    the    cities 
vacant  lots  are  allowed  to  grow  up  in  weeds,  while  the 
comfort  and  health  of  many  families  would  be  increased 
by  the  supply  of  fresh  vegetables  and  berries  that  might 
be  secured  from  these  lots  (Fig.  97). 

Every  family  in  town  and  country  should,  if  possible,  flow  the 
have  a  garden,  not  only  because  it  is  profitable,  but  %££} ]  j^ar 
because  the  satisfaction  of  having  one's  own  vegetables  oenefited 
fresh  every  day  is  reward  enough  for  the  work  required. 
The  boy  who  furnishes  his  own  or  neighboring  families 
with  vegetables"  that  he  himself  raises  is  doing  something 
to  build  up  the  kind  of  character  that  he  needs  in  life. 
The  girl  who  does  a  little  work  in  her  garden  every  day 
is  adding  to  her  physical  strength  and  is  laying  the 
foundation  for  health. 

Preparing  garden  soil.     Gardening  is   the  most  in-  improve- 
tensive  kind  of  farming  —  the  greatest  amount  of  prod-  men'  °^ 
uce  is  taken  from  the  smallest  area.     The  richest  soil 

119 


I2O 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


of  lime 


W.  T.  Skilling 


FIG.  97.     A  sale  of  garden  vegetables  that  were  raised  by  pupils  on  the 
grounds  of  a  city  school. 

is  needed  to  make  a  garden  pay  for  the  labor  and  time 
that  is  expended  upon  it ;  but  even  if  the  soil  is  naturally 
poor,  it  can  be  so  improved  as  to  produce  fine  results. 
If  the  soil  is  a  stiff  clay,  hard  to  work  and  liable  to  bake 
badly,  it  may  be  greatly  improved  by  working  into  it 
Two  effects  several  loads  of  sand.  Also,  if  air-slaked  lime  is  applied 
at  the  rate  of  a  ton  to  the  acre  or  about  five  pounds  to 
one  hundred  square  feet,  it  makes  such  soil  looser  and 
much  easier  to  work,  and  it  overcomes  sourness.  (Exp. 
i.)  It  is  said  that  a  French  gardener  can  make  a  suc- 
cessful garden  on  the  top  of  a  building.  All  that  he 
needs  for  it  is  a  few  loads  of  earth  and  plenty  of 
fertilizer. 

Well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is  a  safe  fertilizer  for 
any  soil  or  crop.  It  may  not  possess  in  large  enough 
proportions  some  of  the  needed  plant  foods,  but  it  has 
some  of  all  of  them.  Besides,  it  changes  into  humus 
and  so  makes  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  better. 
Market  gardeners  sometimes  use  as  high  as  40  tons  of 


Manure; 

amount 

allowable 


Vegetable  Gardening 


121 


manure  to  an  acre.  This  would  be  at  the  rate  of  about 
two  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  < 

Artificial  fertilizers  are  also  much  used.  From  one 
thousand  to  two  thousand  pounds  of  any  high-grade 
"  complete  fertilizer  "  may  be  applied  to  each  acre. 
A  complete  fertilizer  is  one  made  up  of  potash,  phos- 
phates, and  nitrates.  Special  fertilizers  are  sold,  con- 
taining these  ingredients  in  proportions  suitable  for 
particular  crops  as  potatoes,  strawberries,  etc.  The 
potato  crop,  for  example,  needs  a  large  amount  of  potash. 

Garden  seeds  are  so  small  and  the  plants,  as  a  rule,  are 
so  much  more  delicate  than  are  those  of  field  crops,  that 
the  soil  needs  to  be  finer  and  the  surface  smoother  than 
is  necessary  in  the  fields  (Fig.  98).  The  plowing  or 
spading  should  be  deep  in  order  to  give  the  roots  plenty 
of  room  in  which  to  search  for  water  and  nourishment. 


A  complete 
fertilizer 


Why 
careful 
preparation 
of  soil  is 
necessary 


W.  T.  Stilling 
FIG.  98.    Keep  a  furrow  when  spading,  and  rake  while  the  clods  are  soft. 


122 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Methods  of 

applying 

manure 


The  start 
for  a 
garden 


W.  T.  Skilling 
FIG.  99.     Tools  enough  to  start  a  garden. 

Much  time  is  saved  by  the  use  of  a  "  wheel  hoe  "  in 
gardening  (Figs.  100  and  101). 

Stable  manure  may  be  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  mixed  with  the  soil  when  the  garden  is  spaded 
or  plowed.  The  most  effective  way  to  apply  manure 
is  to  put  it  into  a  trench  and  mix  it  with  the  soil  under 
each  row  of  vegetables.  It  is  said  that  the  Indians 
used  to  bury  a  fish  under  each  hill  of  corn  at  planting 
time. 

Hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  Even  before  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground  in  spring  we  may  begin  garden  opera- 


Vegetable  Gardening 


123 


41 


S.  L.  Allen  &  Co. 
FIG.  100.    A  wheel  hoe,  combining  weed  cutters,  cultivators,  rakes,  and  plow. 


W.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  101.  With  a  wheel  hoe,  in  soft  ground,  three  boys  or  one  man  can  do  as 
much  in  an  hour,  either  in  preparation,  planting,  or  cultivating,  as  in  a  day 
with  ordinary  tools. 


124 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


tions.     A  hotbed  makes  it  possible  to  begin  raising  cab- 
bage and  tomato  plants  in  March.     The  plants  will 


Making  a 
hotbed 


mm 

FIG.  102.    How  a  hotbed  is  constructed. 

be  well  grown  by  the  time  it  becomes  safe  to  set  them  in 
the  open  ground. 

The  process  of  making  a  hotbed  is  very  simple  (Fig.  102 
and  Exp.  2).  Fresh  horse  manure  is  piled  on  the  ground 
to  a  depth  of  about  two  feet,  leveled  off,  and  covered 
with  six  inches  of  garden  soil.  The  heat  generated  by 
the  manure  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  soil  warm  for  five 
or  six  weeks.  Fresh  cow  manure  may  be  used  if  mixed 
with  plenty  of  straw,  as  it  usually  is  in  the  stall.  A 
wooden  frame  is  built  around  the  plot  and  a  glass  cover 
is  placed  on  the  frame.  Regular  hotbed  sash  with  small 
panes  can  be  purchased  to  make  this  glass  cover.  ,The 
frame  should  be  a  few  inches  higher  on  the  north  side, 


Vegetable  Gardening 


125 


so  that  the  glass  will  slope  toward  the  south,  thus  ad- 
mitting the  largest  possible  amount  of  sunlight  as  well 
as  draining  off  the  rain.  Sometimes  a  permanent  hot- 
bed is  made  by  digging  a  pit  thirty  inches  deep  and 
bricking  up  the  sides.  This  has  only  to  be  refilled  each 
year. 

The  chief  purpose  of  a  cold  frame  is  to  protect  plants  A  cold 
from  frost.     It  is  similar  to  a  hotbed,  except  that  no  ma-  /mme 
nure  is  put  into  it  to  supply  extra  warmth  (Fig.  103). 
The  frame  is  sometimes  covered  with  cloth  instead  of 
glass. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  it  is  often  better  to  start  Four 
plants  in  a  nursery,  such  as  a  hotbed  or  cold  frame,  than 


to  plant  them  in  the  garden  directly.     First,  as  already  «  hotbed  or 
noted,  time  can  be  gained  while  we  are  waiting  for  frame 
weather  warm  enough  for  outdoor  planting.     Second, 
an  early,  quick-growing  crop  such  as  radishes  can  be 


FIG.  103.    Sash-covered  cold  frame. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


126 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Starting 

tomato 

plants 


raised  in  the  garden  while  a  crop  like  celery  or  cabbage 
is  being  prepared  in  the  hotbed.  This  second  crop  can 
be  transplanted  as  soon  as  the  first  is  out,  thus  economiz- 
ing in  the  use  of  land.  Third,  the  young  plants  can  be 
better  and  more  easily  cared  for  in  a  small  seed  bed  than 
in  the  open  garden.  Fourth,  transplanting  causes  a 
better  root  system  to  form  (Fig.  104) .  The  broken  roots 
branch  more  freely,  just  as  a  rose  stalk,  the  tip  of  which 
has  been  pinched  off,  will  immediately  send  out  side 
branches  along  its  whole  length. 

Tomatoes.  Late  in  March  or  early  in  April  tomato 
seed  may  be  planted  in  a  hotbed  or  in  a  house  that  is 
heated.  The  plants  will  be  ready  to  remove  to  the 
garden  in  May  or  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

While  still  in  the  hotbed  they  should  be  transplanted 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  104.     At  the  left  are  the  roots  of  transplanted  celery ;  at  the  right  are 
the  roots  of  celery  that  was  not  transplanted. 


Vegetable  Gardening 


127 


FTG.  105.  Transplanting  tomatoes.  When  the  hole  has  been  dug,  the  ground 
should  be  well  watered  before  the  roots  are  covered.  The  plants,  will  do  better 
if  they  are  kept  shaded  during  the  first  few  days  after  they  are  set  out. 


twice  to  prevent  them  from  crowding  each  other  and 
becoming  weak  and  spindling. 

When  transferred  to  the  garden  the  plants  will  be 
almost  large  enough  to  bloom  (Fig.  105).  They  should 
be  set  three  feet  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  Or,  in 
rich  garden  soil,  they  may  be  six  inches  closer  than  this 
each  way. 

Fermenting  manure  dug  into  the  garden  soil  will  be  Care 
of  benefit  in  furnishing  some  heat  as  well  as  in  giving 
nourishment.  Unless  the  vines  are  trained  up  on  a 
support,  a  little  hay  or  straw  should  be  placed  on  the 
ground  for  them  to  rest  upon.  This  will  keep  the  fruit 
clean  and  make  it  less  likely  to  rot. 

In  August,  if  the  plants  are  growing  rapidly,  it  is  Pruning 
well  to  prune  off  the  ends  of  the  vines  so  that  the  nour- 


128 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Planting 

and 

fertilizing 

cabbage 

plants 


What  the 
cabbage 
butterfly 
does 


Spraying 


The 

climates 
to  which 
beans  and 
peas  are 
native 


ishment  that  they  would  take  will  go  into  the  fruit  and 
develop  it  more  perfectly. 

Cabbage.  Like  tomato  plants,  cabbage  plants  are 
usually  raised  in  a  hotbed  and  transplanted  to  the 
field  or  garden.  Cabbage  grows  very  fast  while  heading, 
and  it  therefore  requires  an  abundance  of  nourishment. 
If  manure  is  too  scarce  to  be  spread  all  over  the  ground, 
it  should  be  put  around  each  plant  and  worked  into  the 
soil,  or  before  transplanting  it  should  be  buried  where 
each  plant  is  to  be  placed. 

One  serious  pest  is  the  cabbage  worm,  which  is  so 
nearly  the  color  of  the  leaf  that  it  can  scarcely  be  seen. 
It  is  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  a  white  or  slightly  yellow 
butterfly  with  black  markings  on  its  wings  (Fig.  106). 
This  is  the  butterfly  that  is  often  seen  flitting  from  one 
cabbage  plant  to  another  to  deposit  its  eggs.  The  but- 
terfly itself  does  no  harm.  Lead  arsenate  may  be  sprayed 
on  the  plants  before  the  heads  begin  to  form.  If  spray- 
ing is  properly  done  even  after  the  heads  have  formed, 
there  is  no  danger,  for  it  has  been  determined  that  as 
many  as  twenty-eight  heads  of  cabbage  so  sprayed  would 
have  to  be  eaten  to  cause  poisoning.  The  only  danger 
is  in  using  an  unnecessary  amount  of  the  spray.  An 
even  safer  spray,  however,  is  tobacco  extract.  This 
will  destroy  not  only  the  worms  but  also  plant  lice, 
which  often  injure  the  cabbage  crop. 

Beans  and  peas.  Beans  have  been  grown  since  an- 
cient times  in  the  warm  countries  that  border  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  varieties  we  raise  are  sup- 
posed to  have  originated  in  the  warmer  parts  of  South 
America.  As  might  be  expected,  beans  are  known  as 


Vegetable  Gardening  129 


Oregon  Agricultural  College 

FIG.  106.     Cabbage  butterflies.    The  female  has  two  spots  on  each  wing; 
the  male,  one. 

a  warm-season  crop.  Peas,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
Old  World.  They  are  a  cool-season  crop.  They  can 
be  planted  much  earlier  in  the  spring  than  beans,  for 
they  will  stand  considerable  frost  and  will  grow  rapidly 
in  weather  so  cool  that  beans  would  be  at  a  standstill. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  both  peas  and  beans,  Why  there 
for  the  flowers  readily  cross-pollinate  and  new  hybrids  ^-^y 
result.     The  dwarf  types  of  both  peas  and  beans  should  of  both 
be  planted,  unless  supports  can  be  provided  for  the  high- 
climbing  varieties.     The   latter   bear   the  more   abun-  Smooth  and 
dantly,  however.     The  smooth  varieties  of  peas  are  more  V 


hardy  than  the  wrinkly  varieties,  and  they  will  also 
endure  more  frost. 

Beans  should  be  planted  shallow  —  not  more  than  an  Planting 
inch  deep  ;  but  peas  can  be  planted  as  deep  as  four  inches,     ^as*  C 
The  bean  plant  comes  up  double,  bringing  the  seed  with 


130 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Fertilizers 
required 


When  to 

grow 

lettuce 


W.  T.  Shilling 
FIG.  107.     Gathering  a  5o-dollar  crop  of  string  beans  in  a  school  garden. 

it,  and  it  is  not  able  to  break  through  a  great  thickness 
of  earth.  The  pea  seed,  on  the  other  hand,  remains 
in  the  ground,  and  the  tightly  rolled  plant  pierces  the 
ground  easily.  Both  beans  and  peas  are  usually  planted 
in  drills,  but  the  climbing  varieties  may  be  planted  in 
hills  for  convenience  in  arranging  supports  (poling). 

Beans  and  peas  belong  to  the  family  of  leguminous 
plants.  They  do  not  require  much  nitrogen  in  the  soil, 
since,  like  all  legumes,  they  can  get  it  from  the  air  through 
the  bacteria  in  their  root  nodules.  But  wood  ashes, 
ground  bone,  or  any  other  fertilizers  rich  in  potassium 
and  phosphorus  are  very  beneficial. 

Lettuce.  This  vegetable,  like  cabbage,  is  a  cool- 
season  crop.  It  thrives  best  in  early  spring  or  late 
summer.  It  stands  considerable  cold.  If  grown  in 


Vegetable  Gardening  131 

hot  weather,  it  should  have  shade  to  keep  it  crisp.     Let-  Methods  of 

tuce  is  often  sown  broadcast,  but  it  is  better  to  start  p  a 

the  plants  in  a  nursery.     In  the  garden  they  should  be 

set  about  a  foot  apart  each  way.     The  varieties  that 

form  close  heads  are  much  superior  to  those  that  develop 

loose  leaves,  but  the  head  varieties  are  more  difficult 

to  raise. 

The  vine  crops.  Melons,  squashes,  pumpkins,  and 
cucumbers  resemble  each  other  very  much  in  manner 
of  growth  and  in  the  kind  of  care  they  require.  Most 
of  the  rules  for  successfully  growing  one  of  them  will 
apply  to  the  others. 

Since  the  vines  are  warm-climate  plants,  it  is  neces-   The  season 
sary  to  delay  planting  in  the  spring  until  the  soil  is  well 
warmed  ;  otherwise  the  seed  will  rot.     Plenty  of  fertilizer 
is  needed  to  secure  a  good  vine  crop.     A  shovelful  of 
manure  buried  where  each  hill  is  to  be  planted  gives 
the  vine  a  quick  start.     The  manure  is  covered  with  Planting 
dirt  and  well  packed,  so  that  moisture  will  rise  through 


it.  The  seeds  are  then  planted  over  the  manure.  The 
depth  of  planting  varies  with  the  size  of  the  seed.  Cu- 
cumbers and  muskmelons  should  have  only  half  an  inch 
of  moist  earth  over  them.  The  larger  seeds,  as  of  squashes 
and  pumpkins,  may  safely  be  put  a  little  deeper. 

The  distance  that  the  hills  should  be  apart  depends  Space 
somewhat  on  the  richness  of  the  soil.  In  heavily  fer- 
tilized  land  the  vines  run  more  and  so  should  be  planted 
farther  apart  than  in  poor  soil.  Muskmelons,  cucum- 
bers, and  summer  squashes  are  planted  from  four  to 
five  feet  apart  each  way.  Watermelons,  pumpkins,  and 
winter  squashes  require  double  this  distance. 


132 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Plants 
to  each 
hill 


Securing 
an  early 
crop ' 


Thinning,  after  the  plants  are  well  up  but  before 
they  have  begun  to  run,  is  very  necessary.  To  insure 
a  good  stand,  ten  or  twelve  seeds  are  often  planted  in 
each  hill;  but  this  number  must  be  reduced  to  two  or 
three  before  the  plants  begin  to  crowd  each  other.  In 
the  case  of  watermelons,  one  vine  in  a  place  is  better  if 
large  melons  are  wanted. 

In  order  to  secure  an  early  crop  that  will  bring  a  higher 
price,  the  young  plants  are  sometimes  raised  in  a  hot- 
house and  then  removed  to  open  ground.  But  since 
they  are  very  difficult  to  transplant,  they  cannot  be 
handled  like  tomato  and  cabbage  plants.  They  must 
be  raised  in  little  pots,  berry  boxes,  or  on  small  squares 
of  sod,  and  they  must  be  moved  without  disturbing  the 
roots  (Fig.  1 08). 


W.  T. 


FIG.  108.    Cucumbers  planted  in  a  berry  box. 


Vegetable  Gardening 


133 


Planting 
to  get  the 
best  stand 
of  sweet 
corn 


The  protection  of  vines  against  the  common  pests —  Enemies 
squash  bugs,  cucumber  beetles,  and  plant  lice  —  is  con- 
sidered    in     Chapter     Thirteen 
(Fig.  109). 

Sweet  corn.  In  planting  and 
caring  for  sweet  corn,  the  require- 
ments are  very  little  different 
from  those  for  field  corn.  Tl\e 
rows  are  usually  three  feet  apart, 
and  the  hills  are  three  feet  apart 
in  the  row,  with  three  stalks  to 
the  hill.  The  same  number  of 
stalks  may  be  distributed,  one  in  u.  s.  D.  A. 

x     nlare     fllonp-    the    row       The    FlG'  I09'    The  striped  cucum- 
a     Piace>     '  ber    beetle    (much    enlarged). 

yield    will    be  about   the  same    in     The   larva   attacks   the   roots 
_..  .          and  stems  of  vines;   the  adult 

either   case.      If   several   grains    eats  the  leaves. 

are  dropped  in  a  hill,  they  should 

not  be  bunched  closely  together. 

thicker  to  make  sure  of  a  good  stand,  it  should  be 

thinned  early. 

A  succession  of  plantings  from  about  May  i  to  July 
i  makes  it  possible  to  have  sweet  corn  during  all  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  and  through  the  early  fall. 
Some  varieties  mature  in  about  two  months;  others 
require  nearly  three.  The  late  varieties  as  a  rule  grow 
larger,  produce  more,  and  are  sweeter  than  the  earlier 
varieties. 

A  troublesome  insect  is  the  corn-ear  worm.  It  is 
much  more  destructive  in  the  South  than  in  the  North. 
Its  mother,  a  gray  moth,  lays  her  eggs  on  the  silk  of 
the  young  ear.  From  here  the  worms,  when  hatched, 


If  the  corn  is  planted 


Securing   a 

continuous 

supply 


The  corn- 
ear  worm 


134 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


How  it 
may  be 
checked 


The  soil 
best  suited 
for  beets 
and 
similar 
crops 


Time 
to  plant 


Thinning 


crawl  into  the  ear,  eating  the  grains  as  they  go.  The 
best  means  to  combat  this  pest  is  to  raise  a  variety 
of  corn  with  a  thick,  close-fitting  husk,  such  as  the 
evergreen,  and  to  keep  the  corn  well  watered  and  grow- 
ing rapidly  while  the  ears  are  forming.  As  a  partial 
remedy  the  silks  may  be  dusted  several  times  with  ar- 
senate  of  lead  in  the  form  of  a  fine,  dry  powder. 

Underground  crops ;  beets,  etc.  Beets,  carrots,  pars- 
nips, and  salsify  (oyster  plant)  are  much  alike  in  the 
culture  and  soil  that  they  require.  A  deep,  sandy  loam 
is  best  for  them,  for  if  the  ground  is  hard  the  roots  are 
likely  to  branch  and  become  irregular  in  shape.  A 
heavily  fertilized  soil  is  very  desirable;  but  in  fresh 
manure  the  roots  tend  to  branch,  and  it  should  not  be 
used. 

These  are  all  "  cold-loving  crops  "  and  should  be 
planted  early  in  the  spring.  The  seeds  should  be  planted 
about  an  inch  deep  in  rows  sixteen  inches  apart.  Pars- 
nips and  salsify  are  slow  to  come  up.  A  few  radish 
seeds  are  sometimes  planted  with  them  to  mark  the  row, 
so  that  cultivation  may  be  started  early.  The  radishes 
will  mature  before  the  other  plants  need  the  room. 
Parsnips  and  salsify  require  the  whole  season  to  mature. 

Beets  may  be  thinned  twice  :  first  when  they  are  about 
six  inches  high  and  will  do  for  greens,  and  later  when  the 
roots  are  large  enough  to  put  up  in  bunches  for  sale. 
The  remaining  beets,  now  about  four  inches  apart, 
may  grow  to  full  size  for  winter  use.  Carrots,  parsnips, 
or  salsify,  if  too  thick,  should  be  thinned  soon  after  they 
come  up,  so  that  they  will  have  room  enough  to  grow  to 
their  full  size  without  crowding. 


Vegetable  Gardening 


135 


Potatoes.     White   or    "  Irish "    potatoes    are    grown  The  best 
both  as  a  field  crop  and  as  a  garden  vegetable  (Fig.  no).  S^taioes 
Light  sandy  loam  is  the  soil  most  suitable  for  them, 
though  they  will  grow  in  any  soil  and  in  almost  any 
climate. 

That  part  of  the  common  potato  which  we  eat  is  not  What  the 
a  root,  but  it  is  a  tuber  —  an  enlarged  underground  fe 
stem.     And  the  "  eyes,"  which  are  planted  to  produce  c 
the  new  crop,   are  really  buds.     Each  eye  will  grow, 
and  even  a  scrap  of  peel  containing  an  eye  will  produce 
a  plant.     But  it  will  not  do  well  unless  there  is  enough 
substance  with  the  eye  to  furnish  nourishment  for  the 
plant  while  it  is  getting  its  root  system  established. 
Experts  say  that  each  piece  into  which  a  potato  is  cut 
for  "  seed  "  should  be  as  large  as  a  small  egg  (Fig.  in). 

It  is  the  better  plan  to  select  seed  potatoes  while  they 


U.  S.  I).  A. 

FIG.  no.     Digging  and  picking  potatoes.     On  large  farms  4-horse  riding 
diggers  are  used. 


136 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Why  seed 
potatoes 
should  be 
selected  at 
digging 


Caring  for 
seed  tubers 


Planting 


W.  T.  SMUino 

FIG.  in.     Potatoes  should  be  cut  to  the  size  of  a  small  egg  for  planting. 
(Egg  at  left  of  picture.) 

are  being  dug.  Then  they  can  be  chosen  from  healthy 
plants  that  have  produced  the  largest  number  of  good, 
uniform  potatoes.  Seed  selected  from  the  bin,  though 
good  looking,  may  have  been  produced  on  vines  that 
bore  only  a  few  good  potatoes,  and  therefore  a  crop 
grown  from  them  would  be  poor. 

Potatoes  for  seed  should  be  kept  in  a  fairly  light,  dry 
room.  Any  sprouts  that  form  in  the  light  will  be  short 
and  sturdy,  not  easily  broken  off  in  planting.  Sprouts 
formed  in  the  dark  are  soft  and  long.  Badly  sprouted 
tubers  should  not  be  used  as  seed.  Potatoes  should  be 
planted  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  with  the  hills  fourteen 
to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row,  four  inches  being 


Vegetable  Gardening  137 

about  the  proper  depth.     One  piece  of  seed  potato  con- 
taining an  eye  should  be  planted  to  each  hill. 

Both  the  vines  and  the  tubers  of  potatoes  are  attacked  Insects  and 
by  insects  and  various  diseases.     The  Colorado  potato  ine  potato 
beetle   ("  potato   bug ")   is   the   commonest   and  most  bu9 
destructive  insect  pest.      It   lives  on   the   leaves  and 
so  can  easily  be  killed  with  a  poison  spray  of  Paris 
green. 

A  common  disease  of  the  tubers  is  potato  scab.  This  Use  of 
is  a  fungous  growth  that  causes  the  potato  skin  to  appear 
rough  and  unsightly.  If  potato  seed  is  not  perfectly  scab 
smooth,  it  should  be  treated  with  formalin  to  kill  the 
fungi  that  might  cause  disease  in  the  new  crop.  The 
treatment  consists  in  soaking  the  potatoes  for  two  hours 
in  water  containing  formalin,  one  pint  of  formalin  to 
thirty  gallons  of  water  being  the  right  strength. 

A  disease  of  the  po  tato  vine  which  causes  it  to  wilt  and  Potato 
die  is  known  as  "  potato  blight."     This  is  also  a  fungous     ig 
disease,  and  it  can  be  prevented  by  spraying  the  potato 
vines  every  ten  to  fourteen  days  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
the  spray  that  is  used  for  most  fungous  diseases.     Potato 
blight  does  not  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 
A  sudden  outbreak  of  blight  in  Ireland  many  years  ago, 
before  any  remedy  was  known,  resulted  in  a  famine 
that  cost  the  lives  of  more  than  two  hundred  thousand 
people. 

Sweet  potatoes.     That  part  of  a  sweet  potato  which  Conditions 
we  eat  is  a  true  root  and  not  an  underground  stem  like    °we%t°mn9 
the  tuber  of  the  white  potato.     As  sweet  potatoes  are  potatoes 
natives  of  tropical  America,  they  are  especially  a  South- 
ern crop,  though  they  are  grown  in  the  North  in  warm, 


138 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Sprouting 
and  setting 
out 


Keeping 


Methods  of 
propagating 
onions 


Growing 
sets 


sandy  soil.  In  the  South  the  large,  juicy  varieties 
known  as  "  yams  "  are  preferred,  while  in  the  North 
the  smaller,  drier  kinds  are  better  liked.  Sweet  potatoes 
will  grow  in  almost  pure  sand,  but  they  need  a  good  deal 
of  moisture. 

In  starting  the  plants  a  hotbed  is  used.  The  plot  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  the  potatoes  laid  about  half  an 
inch  apart,  so  that  any  rot  that  starts  in  one  will  not 
spread  to  others.  The  potatoes  are  then  covered  with 
four  or  five  inches  of  sand  or  light  soil.  Many  sprouts 
come  up  from  them,  and  when  these  sprouts  are  about 
six  inches  above  ground  they  are  carefully  pulled.  The 
potatoes  are  left  in  the  hotbed  to  produce  more  sprouts. 
The  first  pulling  yields  ten  or  twelve  sprouts  from 
each  potato.  In  the  South  "  slips  "  for  later  plantings 
are  obtained  by  cutting  the  ends  off  earlier  vines. 
Sprouts  or  slips  should  be  set  about  sixteen  inches  apart 
in  ridges  three  feet  apart.  The  vines  will  spread  over  all 
the  ground.  During  cultivation  they  should  be  moved 
with  the  hoe  to  prevent  them  from  taking  root  (Fig.  112). 

Sweet  potatoes  must  be  fully  ripe  to  keep  well,  and 
they  keep  best  in  a  warm  place.  A  test  for  ripeness  is 
made  by  breaking  a  potato  in  two.  If  drops  of  water 
form  at  the  broken  ends,  the  potato  is  not  ripe. 

Onions.  Where  many  onions  are  to  be  raised,  it  is 
customary  either  to  plant  seeds  or  to  transplant  young 
seedlings  from  a  nursery.  But  onions  may  be  most 
quickly  grown  from  sets.  These  are  raised  like  ordinary 
onions,  but  they  are  planted  thicker  —  about  two 
hundred  seeds  to  the  foot  in  each  row  —  and  usually 
upon  land  not  very  rich  or  very  well  supplied  with 


Vegetable  Gardening 


Planting 
seeds 


moisture.  Under  these 
conditions  the  bulbs 
cannot  grow  large. 

In  growing  onions 
from  seed,  the  seed  is 
planted  in  rows  a  foot 
apart,  and  at  the  time 
of  the  first  weeding  the 
plants  are  thinned  so  as 
to  leave  them  two  or 
three  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  The  plants  are 
very  delicate  at  first, 
and  they  do  not  come 
up  well  if  a  crust  is  al- 
lowed to  form  over  the 
surface  of  the  soil. 

If  the  nursery  method 
is  used,  the  seed  is  sown 
thickly  in  a  carefully 

prepared     plot    and     the     FIG.  112.    The  yield  of  a  single  hill  of  sweet 
1 1  •  potatoes.      The     larger    varieties,    called 

seedlings    are    trans-    Pyams/,  yield  muc*  more  heav;ly  than 

planted    while    Still    Very     do  t^6  smaller  varieties,  like  those  in  the 

small.     The  plot  should 

be  level,  well  enriched,  and  bordered  with  a  ridge  of 
earth  so  that  it  can  be  flooded  with  water  if  necessary. 
In  cultivating  onions,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  cover 
the  bulbs  with  soil. 

Three  soil  conditions  necessary  to  the  best  results  The  soil 
in  growing  onions  are  richness,  mellowness,  and  freedom 
from  weeds.     These  conditions  can  best  be  secured  by 


An  onion 
nursery 


W.  T.  Stilling 


140 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


heavily  fertilizing  and  thoroughly  cultivating  the  soil 
for  several  years  before  the  attempt  is  made  to  raise 
onions.  A  ton  of  manure  should  be  applied  to  a  plot 
thirty  feet  square  each  year  that  onions  are  raised  on  it. 

A  regular  supply  of  moisture  is  very  necessary  for 
affectslhem  oni°ns>  as  they  are  shallow-rooted  plants.  If  their 
growth  is  checked  by  drought  at  any  time  before  they 
are  nearly  full-grown,  they  do  not  recover  as  readily  as 
some  crops  do  when  rain  comes.  (Exps.  3  and  4.) 

Onions,  except  when  raised  for  use  as  "green"  or 
"  bunch  "  onions,  should  not  be  pulled  before  the  leaves 
have  begun  to  ripen  off.  When  pulled,  the  bulbs  should 
be  spread  in  a  cool,  dry,  and  well- ventilated  place. 

A  single  acre  will  yield  as  many  as  five  hundred  or 
even  eight  hundred  bushels  of  onions.  But  as  onions 
require  much  more  care  than  do  most  other  crops,  the 
return  for  the  labor  expended  is  not  so  high  as  one 
might  expect  it  to  be. 

Smut  and  mildew  of  onions  are  two  serious  fungous 
diseases  which  may  be  held  in  check  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture. 


How 

drought 


Gathering 
the  crop 


Yield 


Fungous 
diseases 


Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Thoroughly  mix  a  little  lime  with  a  handful  of  dry  clay. 
Wet  the  clay  and  roll  it  into  a  ball.     Make  a  similar  ball  of  clay 
without  lime.    Let  each  dry  and  see  which  crumbles  more  easily. 

2.  Build  a  hotbed  in  March  and  raise  such  vegetables  as  to- 
matoes and  cabbages. 

3.  Secure  seedsmen's  catalogues  and  find  descriptions  of  the 
different  varieties  of  vegetables  that  have  been  mentioned.     Dis- 
cuss these  descriptions  in  class.     What  garden  tools  do  the  cata- 
logues advertise? 


Vegetable  Gardening  141 

4.   Make  a  garden  according  to  the  instructions  given  in  thisv 
chapter.     Raise  at  least  one  row  of  each  of  the  vegetables  consid- 
ered. 

References 

"The  Home  Vegetable  Garden."     Farmers'  Bulletin  255. 

"Potato  Culture."     Farmers'  Bulletins  407  and  533. 

"Sweet  Potatoes."     Farmers'  Bulletin  324. 

"Beans."     Farmers'  Bulletin  289. 

"Onion  Culture."     Farmers'  Bulletin  354. 

"Cucumbers."     Farmers'  Bulletin  254. 

"Tomatoes."     Farmers'  Bulletin  220. 

"The  Farm  Garden  in  the  North."     Farmers'  Bulletin  937. 

"Home  Gardening  in  the  South."    Farmers'  Bulletin  934. 


CHAPTER  TEN 


How  a 
landscape 
gardener 
regards  the 
lawn 


Grading 


How  to 
make  the 
lawn  look  as 
large  as  it 
should 


ORNAMENTAL   GARDENING 

Great,  wide,  beautiful,  wonderful  world, 
With  the  wonderful  water  around  you  curled, 
And  the  wonderful  grass  upon  your  breast  — 
World,  you  are  beautifully  drest. 

WILLIAM  BRIGHTY  RANDS 

WHETHER  one's  home  is  in  the  city  or  in  the  country, 
it  should  be  beautiful,  and  it  can  be  made  so.  Even 
a  small  lawn,  a  few  flowers,  some  clumps  of  shrubs, 
and  a  tree  or  two  add  to  the  feeling  of  comfort  in  a 
home  and  increase  its  money  value  as  well  (Figs.  113 
and  114). 

The  lawn.  Some  one  has  spoken  of  the  lawn  as  "  the 
canvas  upon  which  the  landscape  artist  places  his  pic- 
ture." Flowers,  trees,  shrubbery,  and  buildings  do  not 
appear  to  the  best  advantage  without  an  expanse  of 
green  to  serve  as  a  setting. 

The  lot  should  be  carefully  graded  before  grass  is 
planted,  for  the  surface  of  the  lawn  cannot  well  be  made 
even  or  given  a  different  slope  after  sod  is  formed.  If 
the  ground  is  naturally  level,  it  should  be  sufficiently 
built  up  near  the  house  to  give  it  a  gentle  slope  toward 
the  street.  This  slope  should  be  convex;  that  is,  it 
should  have  a  slight  bulge.  The  convex  form  makes 
a  lawn  look  larger,  while  a  concave  or  dished  surface 
makes  a  lawn  look  cramped  and  small.  Another  means 
of  making  the  lawn  appear  prominent  is  to  make  walks 
and  drives  less  noticeable  by  having  them  a  little  lower 
than  the  general  level  of  the  grass. 

142 


Ornamental  Gardening 


143 


FIG.  113.     A  house  and  lot. 


W.  T.  Shilling 


\V.  T.  Ski 
FIG.  1 14.     A  home ;  the  house  and  lot  in  Figure  113,  after  plants  were  set  out. 


144 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  final 
slope 


Preparing 
the  soil 


Fertiliza- 
tion 


The 

different 
grasses  for 
lawns 


Sowing 


Frequently  a  lawn  is  given  a  gentle  slope  almost  to 
the  sidewalk  and  then  is  made  to  drop  off  steeply  to  the 
edge  of  the  walk.  It  is  nearly  impossible  to  keep  the 
grass  in  proper  condition  on  such  a  sharp  incline.  The 
slope  should  be  about  the  same  all  the  way,  or  the  drop 
at  the  sidewalk  should  be  vertical,  with  a  retaining  wall. 

It  is  much  easier  to  store  a  large  amount  of  fertilizer 
in  the  soil  while  it  is  being  prepared  for  grass  than  to 
apply  the  fertilizer  little  by  little  afterwards.  Well- 
rotted  stable  manure  is  the  most  satisfactory  fertilizer 
to  apply.  It  makes  humus,  which,  as  we  know,  helps 
the  ground  to  hold  moisture  and  furnishes  nitrogen  and 
other  plant  foods.  It  is  well  to  add  a  little  lime  and 
ground  bone  to  the  stable  manure.  The  lime  sweetens 
the  soil  if  it  is  sour,  and  the  bone  slowly  decomposes 
and  furnishes  the  grass  with  phosphorus.  Two  pounds 
of  manure  and  an  ounce  each  of  lime  and  ground  bone 
may  be  applied  to  each  square  foot  of  lawn. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  is  more  commonly  used  for  lawns 
than  is  any  other  grass.  Bermuda  grass  is  much  used 
in  the  South,  especially  on  light  sandy  soils.  Italian 
rye  grass  makes  a  quick  lawn,  but  it  is  coarse  and  soon 
dies  out.  Redtop,  bent  grass,  and  white  clover  are  used 
east  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  where  the  soil  is  too 
acid  for  other  grass.  White  clover  is  usually  planted 
with  Kentucky  blue  grass,  as  the  two  make  a  more 
satisfactory  lawn  than  does  either  grass  alone. 

Grass  seed  should  be  sown  thickly,  so  that  weeds 
will  not  have  much  room  to  get  a  start.  If  there  is 
too  much  grass,  some  of  it  will  be  crowded  out  in  time 
and  no  harm  will  be  done.  Where  a  combination  of 


Ornamental  Gardening 


wn 


blue  grass  and  white  clover  is  wanted,  the  seeds  should 
not  be  mixed  before  planting.  The  mixture  would  be 
uneven,  for  the  clover  seed  is  heavier  and  would  settle 
to  the  bottom. 

After  the  grass  comes  up,  the  ground  should  be  rolled  Caring  for 
to  give  it  a  smoother,  firmer  surface.  The  lawn  mower 
should  be  used  as  soon  as  the  grass  is  high  enough  for 
the  blades  to  reach  it.  Cutting  the  grass  early  makes 
the  growth  stronger.  To  keep  it  fresh  and  of  a  good 
color,  it  should  never  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  To  pre- 
pare the  lawn  for  winter,  it  is  a  good  thing  to  give  it  a 
mulch  of  well-rotted  manure.  This  should  be  thin 
enough  so  that  the  winter  rains  and  snows  will  wash  it 
down  out  of  sight  about  the  roots  of  the  grass. 

Shrubbery  and  trees.  The  beauty  of  a  place  is  in-  How  to 
creased  by  the  presence  of  shrubbery  if  it  is  well  arranged, 
The  most  inartistic  arrangement  is  one  in  which  the 
shrubs  are  regularly  spaced,  and  only  a  little  better 
is  a  miscellaneous  scattering  of  shrubs  over  the  lawn. 
It  is  best  to  group  the  shrubbery  in  clumps  at  corners 
and  along  the  edges  of  the  lawn,  leaving  unbroken  as 
wide  an  expanse  as  possible  (Fig.  115).  A  bend  in  a 
walk  makes  a  good  place  for  a  clump.  Against  the 


. *-  LOTXJHE. _- ; I4_ 


-  700) 

HOUSE 


-       Ife 

BORPER^N^  /C  BORDER  }:'.'.•  \- 


FIG.  115.    An  artist's  plan  for  improving  a  city  yard. 


146 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


FIG.  1 1 6.  The  shrubbery  and  flowers  are  well  arranged  about  this  American 
colonial-style  home.  Note  the  unbroken  lawn  and  the  hydrangeas  placed  against 
the  foundation  of  the  front  porch. 


FIG.  117.  Farmhouse  on  "Model  Farm"  at  the  Panama-California  Exposition. 
Note  the  arrangement  of  flowers  within  the  circular  widening  of  the  walk.  The 
house  is  built  in  mission  style,  which  is  popular  in  the  Southwest.  This  manner 
of  building  was  suggested  by  the  architecture  of  the  old  Spanish  missions. 


Ornamental  Gardening 


FIG.  nS.  Transplanting  and  pruning  a  young  fruit  tree.  A  tree  should  be 
set  in  a  large  hole,  plenty  of  water  should  be  applied,  and  the  pruning  shears 
should  be  used  freely. 

foundation  of  the  house  there  should  be  low  shrubs  or 
vines  (Fig.  116). 

Shrubs  should  be  pruned  vigorously,  for  a  great  deal  Why  shrubs 
of  cutting  induces  new  growth  and  so  keeps  the  plants  JS^f*** 
looking  fresh   and  green.     Pruning  encourages  shrubs  pruning 
to  send  out  branches  all  the  way  down  to  the  ground. 
This  covers  the  stems,  that  otherwise  would  be  bare,  and 
causes  the  whole  mass  of  foliage  to  appear  to  rest  upon 
the  lawn. 

A  few  trees  lend  a  touch  of  dignity  to  a  place  which  The  beauty 
flowers  and  shrubbery,  however  beautiful,  cannot  give.  °firees 
But  it  is  a  mistake  to  have  the  house  very  densely  shaded 
by  trees,  pretty  as  this  may  look,  for  sunshine  in  abun- 
dance is  necessary  to  health  (Fig.  117). 

Much  of  the  success  of  a  tree  depends  upon  its  start 


148 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


How  to  (Fig.  118).  When  the  tree  is  removed  for  transplanting, 
plant  a  tree  pienty  of  g^^  must  be  allowed  to  adhere  to  the  roots 
so  as  to  preserve  the  root  hairs  (see  page  3).  Upon 
planting,  the  roots  are  well  spread  out  in  a  large  hole  so 
filled  that  the  best  of  the  soil  is  in  the  bottom.  To 
prevent  the  tree  from  being  bent  by  the  wind,  it 
should  be  supported  by  a  stake  (Fig.  119).  Plenty 
of  water  should  be  poured  on  the  soil  that  is  filled  in, 
in  order  to  settle  it.  After  the  first  watering  the  soil 
should  be  kept  only  damp.  Too  much  water  may  rot 
the  roots. 

Many  inexperienced  persons  think  that  pruning  away 
any  of  the  foliage  at  transplanting  will  retard  the  growth 
of  a  tree.  But  there  is  no  surer  way  to  stunt  a  trans- 
planted tree  than  not  to  prune  it.  (See  page  81.)  In 


Tarred 


Compact,  well- 
developed  Root 
i^System 

Bottotrf^  :r~ 
Soil    |~ 


FIG.  up.  The  roots  of  a  small  tree  that  has  been  properly  transplanted.  The 
supporting  stake  is  shown  in  position  at  the  right.  Notice  dimensions  of  hole 
and  location  of  topsoil  where  the  roots  can  grow  down  into  it. 


Ornamental  Gardening 


149 


•'! 


Street  and  Highway  Planting 

FIGS.  120  and  121.  If  a  stub  is  left  when  a  branch  is  removed,  decay  is  very 
likely  to  enter  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  But  if  a  branch  is  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk, 
the  wound  will  heal  over. 

pruning  either  trees  or  shrubs,  if  a  branch  is  to  be  removed 
the  cut  should  be  made  close  up  to  the  trunk  or  limb 
that  supports  the  branch  (Figs.  120  and  121).  If  a  short 
stub  is  left,  it  will  die,  and  decay  may  spread  from  it  as 
shown  in  Figure  120.  For  the  same  reason,  if  only  part 
of  a  branch  is  to  be  removed,  the  cut  should  be  made 
just  beyond  a  bud. 

Flowers ;  the  rose  garden.  Flowers  are  the  gems  for 
which  the  garden  furnishes  a  setting,  and  their  effective- 
ness depends  very  much  upon  the  way  in  which  they  are 
arranged.  Some  flowers  are  most  attractive  standing 
alone ;  some  look  well  in  a  mass ;  others,  as  daisies,  do 
best  if  they  are  allowed  to  grow  as  wild  flowers  do,  here 


Pruning 
trees    or 
shrubs ; 
where  to  cut 


Effective 
arrange- 
ment of 
flowers 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  place 
for  roses 


The  queen 
of  /lowers 


Planting 
and   care 


and  there  in  the  grass.  Low  flowers  may  well  be  planted 
in  a  row  bordering  a  walk.  The  tall  hollyhock  and  the 
golden  glow  look  best,  perhaps,  if  banked  against  a  wall. 
Where  several  kinds  of  flowers  are  planted  in  a  clump, 
the  tallest  should  be  placed  farthest  back,  so  that  they 
will  not  hide  the  lower  flowers  (Fig.  122). 

A  warm,  protected  spot  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  house 
is  a  good  place  for  roses.  They  need  the  protection  in 
winter,  and  the  sunshine  helps  to  keep  off  mildew  in 
summer  time. 

The  rose  suffers  more  than  most  flowers  do  if  not 
properly  treated,  but  to  good  care  it  responds  with  lavish 
beauty.  For  best  results  the  rose  should  be  grown  in 
clay  soil,  with  an  abundance  of  fertilizer.  But  when  first 
planted  there  is  danger  of  the  roots  decaying  if  they 
come  in  contact  with  manure  or  any  decaying  substance 
in  the  soil.  To  supply  fertilizer,  a  hole  two  feet  deep  may 
be  dug  and  partly  filled  with  a  mixture  of  manure  and 
soil.  The  rose  is  planted  above  this  food  supply  in 
clean  earth  or,  better,  in  leaf  mold.  The  top  should  be 
nearly  all  pruned  away,  and  any  broken  or  bruised  roots 
should  be  removed  by  making  clean  cuts. 

Mildew   is   a   fungous   growth   which   attacks   some 


F  :  PEOKY 

GG  .-  GOLDEN  GLOW 


H  -.HOLLYHOCK. 

C  :  CANTERBURY  BELL 


FIG.  122.     Flowers  properly  arranged  against  a  wall.    The  taller  each  variety 
is,  the  farther  back  it  is  placed. 


Ornamental  Gardening 


varieties  of  roses.  It 
may  be  held  in  check 
by  dusting  the  leaves 
with  powdered  sulfur. 
The  sulfur  sticks  better 
if  it  is  put  on  when  the 
leaves  are  wet  with 
dew. 

The  older  stems  of  the 
rose  bush  are  often  seen 
to  be  covered  with  a 
soft,  white  substance 
that  looks  somewhat  like 
mildew  (Fig.  123).  The 
appearance  is  caused  by 
a  multitude  of  very  small 
scale  insects  which  suck 
the  juice  from  the  stem. 
They  may  be  killed  with 
a  wash  or  spray  made  of 
washing  powder  dissolved  in  water  —  one  pound  to 
five  gallons.  . 

Another  rose  pest  is  plant  lice.  These  insects  work 
on  the  soft  growing  tips  of  the  stems.  Like  the  scale 
insects,  they  suck  plant  juices,  but  they  crawl  about, 
while  the  scale  insects  (at  least  the  wingless  females)  are 
fixed  permanently  to  the  bark.  The  simplest  way  to 
control  plant  lice  is  to  spray  them  off  the  bushes  with 
a  garden  hose. 

A  water  garden.  Pond  lilies  add  a  touch  of  distinction 
to  a  garden,  and  on  a  small  scale  one  may  have  a  lily 


Sulfur 

for 

mildew 


Spraying 
for  rose 
scale 


FIG.  123.  Rose  scale.  The  female  scale 
insects  attach  themselves  permanently  to 
the  plant.  These  and  the  young  suck  the 
plant  juices.  The  adult  males  do  not 
feed,  having  no  mouth  parts;  they  have 
one  pair  of  wings. 


Plant  lice 
(aphids) 


How  to 
make  a 
pond 


152 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


pond  at  little  cost.  The  simplest  way  to  make  a  pond  is 
to  sink  several  tubs  side  by  side  in  the  ground.  Lily 
bulbs  are  planted  in  boxes  of  rich  earth  set  at  the  bot- 
toms of  the  tubs.  The  tubs  are  rilled  half  or  two  thirds 
full  of  good  soil  that  has  been  mixed  with  well-rotted 
manure,  and  are  then  filled  to  the  top  with  water. 
At  a  little  more  expense  a  small  cement  pond  can  easily 
be  made  (Fig.  124). 

When  the  pool  has  once  been  filled,  the  water  does 

not  need  to  be  renewed,  but  enough  water  must  be 

Preventing    added    to   make   up    for  evaporation.     We  may  keep 

green  shme  the  pool  ^Qm  kecommg  fined  with  algae  (green  slime) 

by  putting  a-  little  bluestone  in  the  water.  The 
bluestone  will  not  hurt  the  lilies,  but  as  little  of  it 


Lee  Passmore 


FIG.  124.  These  lily  pools  are  lined  with  cement.  Though  few  of  us  could 
have  so  large  a  water  garden,  most  of  us  could  have  gardens  that  would  be 
beautiful.  • 


Ornamental  Gardening  153 

as  possible   should   be  used   if   there  are  fish  in  the 
pond. 

A  few  goldfish  should  be  kept  in  the  pond  to  prevent  Why  fish 
mosquitoes  from  making  it  a  breeding  place.     The  fish  ske^}  in  ^ 
eat  the  wigglers,  which  are  the   larvae  of   mosquitoes.  P°nd 
The  plants  supply  the  fish  with  oxygen  for  breathing, 
while  the  fish  exhale  carbon  dioxid  gas  which  the  plants 
use  for  growth. 

The  common  pond  lily  and  many  other  water  plants  Water 
are  so  hardy  that  they  will  live  over  winter  in  a  pond,  winter  m 
The  bulbs  and  tubers  of  more  tender  varieties  may  be 
removed  to  a  cellar.     This  is  easily  done  if  the  pond  is 
so  arranged  that  it  can  be  drained. 

The  bulb  garden.  Many  of  our  most  beautiful  flowers 
are  raised  from  bulbs  instead  of  from  seeds.  Most  of 
the  bulbs  are  hardy  enough  to  remain  in  the  ground  over 
winter,  ready  to  come  up  with  the  first  warm  days  of 
spring.  The  pure  white  snowdrops  bloom,  often,  before 
the  last  snow  has  melted.  They  are  quickly  followed 
by  the  crocuses,  which  come  in  several  colors.  Later 
come  the  yellow  daffodils  and  the  gorgeously  colored 
hyacinths  and  tulips. 

A  bulb  is  an  underground  portion  of  the  stem  or  it  What  a 
consists  of  thickened  leaves,  and  its  purpose  is  to  furnish 
an  abundant  store  of  food  that  the  plant  may  draw  on 
during  its  period  of  rapid  growth  when  it  is  sending  up 
a  flower  stalk.     The  onion  is  a  good  example  of  a  bulb.  A  common 
The  year  in  which  the  seed  is  planted  is  spent  in  maturing  examp 
the  bulb.     If  this  is  left  in  the  ground  or  replanted  after 
being  kept  over  winter,  it  blooms  and  produces  seed. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  bulbs :   (i)  those  which,  like 


154  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

Kinds  of  the  onion  and  the  hyacinth,  are  made  up  of  thin,  broad 
coats ;  (2)  those  made  of  thick,  narrow  scales  like  the 
lily ;  and  (3)  solid  bulbs  (or  corms) ,  of  which  the  gladiolus 
and  crocus  are  examples. 

Suitable  The  soil  for  bulbs  should  be  a  sandy  loam  rather  than 

futons  C°"~  a  heavy  claY  soil  sucn  as  roses  need-  It:  should  be  very 
fertile,  but  no  manure  except  that  which  is  thoroughly 
rotted  should  be  used.  Bulbs  (except  those  of  water 
plants)  need  good  drainage.  Soggy,  water-soaked  soil 
is  bad  for  them.  Nearly  all  bulbs  require  sunshine. 
A  few,  however,  as  tulips  and  hyacinths,  will  develop 
taller  stems  if  grown  in  the  shade. 

Planting  A  large  proportion  of  the  bulbs  sold  in  the  market 

are  grown  in  Holland.  The  common  bulbs,  such  as 
crocus,  tulip,  and  the  like,  are  for  this  reason  often  spoken 
of  as  Dutch  bulbs.  October  is  the  best  month  to  plant 
them,  for  if  they  are  put  into  moist  earth  then,  they  will 
have  time  enough  before  the  ground  becomes  frozen 
to  get  their  roots  established  in  the  earth  and  to  draw  a 
supply  of  nourishment  for  use  as  soon  as  spring  comes. 
How  to  treat  After  the  bulbs  have  bloomed,  the  faded  flowers  should 
^have  thal  ke  removed,  for  there  will  be  a  serious  drain  upon  the 
bloomed  plant  if  they  are  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  The  most  ex- 
hausting process  in  the  life  of  any  plant  is  the  production 
of  seed.  Annual  plants  die  when  their  seed  is  ripe. 
After  the  leaves  begin  to  fade,  the  tops  should  be  cut 
off.  Then  the  bulbs  may  be  left  in  the  ground  if  it  is 
moderately  dry,  or  they  may  be  removed  and  stored 
until  planting  time.  Bulbs  multiply  in  the  ground,  and 
at  transplanting  time  they  should  be  separated. 

When  bulbs  are  grown  in  a  dish  of  water,  as  is  some- 


Ornamental  Gardening  155 

times  done,  they  should  be  removed  to  the  ground  after  Water- 
blooming.  This  allows  them  to  regain  strength,  and 
unless  this  is  done  they  will  either  not  bloom  at  all  or 
bloom  very  poorly  during  the  next  year.  Whenever 
the  water  in  which  house  bulbs  are  grown  is  changed,  it 
is  well  to  add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  The  ammonia 
will  supply  the  plants  with  nitrogen  and  make  their 
growth  more  vigorous. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Sketch  a  plan  for  the  grounds  around  a  house,  showing 
walks  and  the  locations  of  the  different  kinds  of  trees,  shrubs, 
and  flowers.     What  do  you  think  of  the  plan  given  in  Figure  115  ? 

2.  Look  carefully  at  the  grounds  of  some  public  building  in  or 
near  your  neighborhood  and  report  to  the  class  on  the  arrange- 
ment of  trees,  shrubs,  etc.     Tell  what  improvements,  if  any,  you 
think  might  be  made.     (The  grounds  about  some  home  might 
be  considered  to  better  advantage  if  there  were  no  danger  of  giv- 
ing offense.) 

References 

"Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds."     Farmers'  Bulletin  185. 
"Lawn  Soils  and  Lawns."     Farmers'  Bulletin  494. 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 


Eastern 
farming 
methods 
not  suc- 
cessful in 
the  West 


Two 

Western 

methods 


Conditions 
required 
in  dry 
farming 


DRY  FARMING  AND   IRRIGATION 


The  desert  shall  rejoice,  and  blossom  as  the  rose. 


ISAIAH 


IN  the  western  half  of  the  United  States  there  are 
many  places  with  so  little  rainfall  that  good  crops  cannot 
be  raised  by  the  methods  used  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country.  When  the  West  was  first  settled  there  were 
many  crop  failures,  because  the  farmers,  who  had  come 
from  the  East,  had  not  learned  what  changes  they  needed 
to  make  in  the  methods  that  they  had  successfully  used 
where  rain  was  plentiful. 

Two  systems  of  farming  have  now  come  into  use  in 
the  West :  dry  farming  and  farming  with  irrigation. 
It  is  possible  to  produce  much  larger  crops  and  a  greater 
variety  of  them  if  irrigation  can  be  used,  but  there  are 
many  places  where,  as  yet,  the  farmers  cannot  get  water 
for  irrigation.  In  such  regions  a  fair  yield  of  certain 
crops  can  be  secured  by  dry-farming  methods,  provided 
the  rainfall  is  not  too  small. 

Dry  farming.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  dry  farm- 
ing means  farming  without  moisture.  No  crop  will 
grow  without  water,  and  the  ordinary  farm  crops  require 
three  hundred  pounds  or  more  of  water  to  make  one 
pound  of  crop.  That  is,  this  large  amount  of  water 
must  pass  from  the  roots  up  through  the  stem  and  be 
lost  by  evaporation  from  the  leaves  in  order  to  produce 
enough  plant  substance  to  weigh  a  pound  after  it  is  dry. 
It  is  known  that  a  large  sunflower  leaf  has  about  thir- 

156 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation  157 

teen  million  stomata,  out  of  which  water  vapor  escapes, 
and  that  a  sunflower  as  tall  as  a  man  may,  by  transpira- 
tion, lose  as  much  as  a  quart  of  water  in  a  day.     It 
has  been  found   that  at  least  ten  inches  of  rainfall  is  How  much 
necessary  in  most  places  to  produce  even  a  fair  crop,   ^ewssary 
However,  the  amount  necessary  is  different  in  different 
places,  for  loss  by  evaporation  from  the  soil  will  be  much 
greater  where  there  is  much  wind  and  hot  weather  than 
where  there  is  less  wind  and  a  cooler  temperature.     The 
soil,  too,  must  be  deep  enough  to  absorb  all  the  rain  that  Depth  of 
does  fall.     The  depth  down  to  bedrock  should  be  at  S0lt 
least  five  or  six  feet. 

The  practices  which,  taken  together,  make  the  system  Methods 
called  "  dry  farming,"  are  all  for  the  purpose  of  making 
a  light  rainfall  go  as  far  as  possible  toward  producing 
a  good  crop.     They  are  of  use  in  gardening  as  well  as 
in  growing  field  crops. 

In  dry  regions  where  there  is  summer  rainfall,  the  Summer 
ground  should  be  plowed  as  soon  as  a  crop  is  harvested.  P^wms 
(For  the  practice  where  there  is  little  or  no  rain  in  summer,   The  advan- 
see  page  160.)     The  plowed  ground  will  absorb  any  rain  ^^ 
that  falls  instead  of  allowing  it  to  run  off.     The  deeper  deep  as  well 
the  plowing,  the  larger  will  be  the  reservoir  of  moisture 
for  use  by  the  next  crop.     Tests  made  with  fall  wheat 
during  seven  years  at  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Manhattan,    Kansas,    show   clearly  the 
advantage  in  plowing  deep  and  early.     The  fields  used 
for  the  tests  were  similar.     The  different  yields  per  acre 
were  due  to  the  different  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  in 
each  case.     The  results  (averaged  for  the  years  1911 
to  1917)  were  as  follows: 


158 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Keeping  a 
dirt  mulch 


The  lesson 
of  a  horse 
track;  the 
subsurface 
packer 


Deep 
planting 


Time  of 
plowing 

July  15 

Aug.  15 

July  15 

Sept.  15 

Sept.  15 

Disked  at 
seeding  time 

Depth  of 
plowing 

(inches) 

7 

7 

3 

7 

3 

Yield  per 
acre  (bu.) 

22.1 

20.7 

17.1 

14.8 

13-6 

7.8 

To  have  the  soil  retain  as  much  as  possible  of  the  water 
that  it  has  absorbed,  the  surface  must  be  kept  loose- 
This  lessens  the  amount  of  moisture  that  can  rise  be- 
tween soil  particles  through  capillary  attraction.  (Exp. 
2.)  The  surface  should  not  be  allowed  to  pack  down 
or  to  crust  over ;  so  frequent  harrowing  or  other  shallow 
cultivation  is  necessary,  especially  after  each  rain. 
Instead  of  a  roller,  a  subsurface  packer  is  used  to  pack 
the  soil.  This  firms  the  lower  soil  but  leaves  the  surface 
loose  (Fig.  125). 

It  is  said  that  H.  W.  Campbell,  who  has  done  much 
to  teach  the  methods  of  dry  farming,  observed  that 
wheat  grew  better  in  horse  tracks  than  in  other  parts 
of  a  field.  He  noted  how  the  horse,  in  treading,  packs 
the  soil,  and  that,  as  it  withdraws  its  foot,  loose  dirt 
falls  into  the  hole,  making  a  dirt  mulch  on  the  surface. 
It  was  Mr.  Campbell  who  invented  the  subsurface 
packer,  to  do  for  all  the  ground  what  the  horse's  hoof 
does  for  a  small  spot. 

The  deeper  the  roots  can  be  made  to  grow,  the  better 
they  are  able  to  obtain  moisture.  The  Indians  in  New 
Mexico  understood  this  before  white  men  did.  They 
made  holes  in  the  ground  with  stakes  and  dropped  the 
seed  corn  into  the  holes.  White  men  sent  to  teach  them 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation  159 


Parlin  and  Orendorff  Co. 

FIG.  125.     A  subsurface  packer.     The  heavy  wheels  with  V-shaped  edges 
pack  the  dirt  against  the  subsoil  but  leave  the  surface  loose. 

modern  agriculture  were  not  as  successful  in  raising 
crops  as  were  the  Indians;  but  this  was  before  the 
scientific  principles  of  dry  farming  had  been  worked  out. 

Still  another  point  of  difference  between  farming  in  a   Thin 
humid  and  in  a  semiarid  region  is  that  only  about  half  pa 
as  much  seed  may  be  used  in  the  dry  region  as  in  the 
humid  region.     The  reason  for  this  is  that  every  plant 
takes  from  the  soil  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  and  if 
there  are  too  many  plants  all  of  them  will  wilt  for  lack 
of  water,  whereas  the  same  amount  of  moisture  might 
be  sufficient  for  the  growth  of  fewer  plants  to  the  acre. 

It  is  of  greatest  importance  that  crops  be  grown  which  Choice  of 
are  able  to  withstand  drought  well.     Among  those  most  cr  p 
suitable  for  dry  farming  are  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley, 
corn,  potatoes,  and  the  various  kinds  of  sorghum.     The 
most  drought-resistant  of  these  is  the  sorghum  family. 
The   introduction  of   grain  sorghums   (milo  and   kafir 
corn)  into  the  semiarid  West  for  use  as  stock  feed  has 
revolutionized  farming  there. 


i6o 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Behavior 
of  different 
varieties 
of  the  same 
crop 


Fallowing 


How  it 
makes  a 
better  crop 
possible 


Summer 
fallowing 
in  the  West 


Leaching 


Certain  varieties  of  each  of  these  crops  are  better 
adapted  to  a  dry  climate  than  other  varieties  of  the  same 
crop.  For  example,  durum  wheat,  which  was  brought 
from  the  semiarid  plains  of  the  Volga  in  Russia,  has 
proved  itself  to  be  an  excellent  dry-farm  wheat,  and  in 
some  sections  little  else  is  grown.  In  Arizona  a  plant 
called  the  "  tepary  bean,"  growing  wild  and  used  as  food 
by  the  Indians,  has  been  found  to  bear  well  where  other 
beans  would  fail  for  lack  of  water. 

"  Fallowing  "  is  a  method  of  allowing  the  soil  to  ac- 
cumulate more  than  the  ordinary  supply  of  water  and 
plant-food  material  before  a  crop  is  planted.  There  is 
in  the  ground  a  great  deal  of  plant-food  material  that 
is  not  in  soluble  form  so  that  the  crops  can  absorb  it. 
But  much  soluble  food  material  is  constantly  being  made 
from  the  humus  and  the  minerals  of  the  soil.  This  will 
accumulate  if  the  ground  is  plowed,  allowing  air  to  enter 
it,  and  if  no  weeds  are  permitted  to  grow  for  a  season. 

In  the  dry  farming  regions  of  the  West,  plowing  for 
summer  fallow  is  done  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the 
spring.  The  land  is  left  bare  till  the  following  fall,  and 
it  is  kept  free  from  weeds.  It  is  then  usually  sown  to 
winter  wheat,  thus  missing  a  crop  during  the  year  of 
the  summer  fallow.  This  is  particularly  the  practice  on 
the  Pacific  Coast.  While  the  land  is  being  fallowed  in 
regions  that  will  have  summer  rainfall,  it  should  be 
harrowed  after  each  rain  to  prevent  packing  at  the 
surface  and  consequent  loss  of  moisture. 

There  is  much  less  loss  to  the  soil  by  leaching  in  a 
dry  region,  of  course,  than  in  a  region  of  heavy  rainfall ; 
but  where  the  ground  is  dry,  much  of  the  humus 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation 


161 


International  Harvester  Co. 

FIG.  126.  Pumping  water  for  irrigation.  A  portable  gasoline  engine  furnishes 
the  power.  In  parts  of  China  and  Egypt,  human  power  is  still  used  for  such 
work. 

changes  to  gases  and  escapes  into  the  air.  Therefore, 
to  keep  up  the  supply  of  humus,  it  is  well  to  plow 
under,  when  possible,  such  waste  crop  materials  as  straw. 
It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  one  can,  in 
dry  regions,  get  an  excess  of  vegetable  matter  into  the 
soil.  The  soil  will  then  be  too  light  and  it  will  easily 
dry  out  and  blow  away. 

Irrigation.  Water  to  irrigate  with  is  often  pumped, 
either  from  wells  or  streams  (Fig.  126).  Gasoline 
engines,  electric  motors,  or  windmills  are  used  to  operate 
the  pumps.  Windmills  are  slow,  and  they  are  unreliable 
on  account  of  the  irregularity  of  wind.  Gasoline  motors 
give  plenty  of  power  but  require  much  more  attention 


Supplying 
humus 


Sources  of 
water  for 
irrigation; 
pumping 


162 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Artesian 
wells 

Damming 
streams 


FIG.  127.     The  main  ditch  of  an  irrigation  system  on  a  sugar  plantation 
in  Hawaii. 

than  do  electric  motors.  The  latter  will  run  day  and 
night  with  no  one  near. 

In  some  favored  localities  there  are  artesian  wells, 
from  which  large  streams  flow  continually. 

A  large  irrigation  system  intended  to  supply  water  to 
many  farms  is  made  by  damming  a  stream  several  miles 
above  the  land  to  be  irrigated.  A  lake  forms  back  of  the 
dam,  and  an  open  ditch  or  sometimes  a  large  pipe  leads  the 
water  out  of  it  and  down  the  valley  (Fig.  127).  But  in- 
stead of  following  the  channel  of  the  stream,  this  ditch 
runs  along  one  side  of  the  valley.  It  is  given  enough  fall  to 
make  the  water  flow,  but  not  so  much  fall  as  the  stream 
bed  has.  In  this  way  the  water  in  the  ditch  is  soon  many 
feet  above  the  natural  stream  bed  and  may  be  allowed 
to  flow  out  over  the  farms  that  are  below  it  in  the  valley. 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation 


Much  of  the  water  of  streams  and  wells  falls  as  rain  Mountain 

in  the  mountains  and  flows  either  underground  or  above  ™hy  it '  is 

heavy 


SIERRA  NEVADA. 
51.18  In. 


PACIFIC 
OCEAN 

18.44  £"*& 


SACRAMENTO    VALLEV 

19.78  in 


0    8e»  Level  25miltt      W  75 

Gregory,  Keller,  and  Bishop's  "Physical  Geography."  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.  128.  On  mountain  slopes  that  receive  the  wind  from  the  sea,  the  rainfall 
is  very  heavy.  Near  the  summit  it  is  heaviest.  On  the  side  of  the  mountains 
away  from  the  sea,  the  rainfall  very  rapidly  diminishes.  Note  that  at  Colfax, 
California,  which  is  perhaps  32  miles  to  the  west  of  the  summit  of  the  Sierras, 
the  rainfall  is  47.02  inches,  while  at  Reno,  Nevada,  which  is  about  30  miles  to  the 
east  of  the  summit,  the  rainfall  is  only  5.94  inches. 

ground  to  the  lowlands.  Highlands  often  receive 
several  times  as  much  rainfall  as  lowlands,  for  the  cold 
air  of  the  mountains  is  needed  to  condense  the  moisture 
of  the  air  into  raindrops.  The  heaviest  rainfall  in  the 
world,  five  hundred  inches  annually  (over  forty  feet),  is 
in  the  highlands  of  India.  Figure  128  shows  how  the 
rainfall  in  California  depends  on  elevation.  The  same 
air  that  blows  across  the  Sacramento  Valley,  giving  about 
twenty  inches  of  rain,  gives  forty-eight  inches  when 
it  has  reached  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains. At  San  Diego,  on  the  coast,  the  rainfall  is  ten 
inches  a  year,  while  upon  mountains  which  are  within 
sight  of  the  city  the  rainfall  is  fifty  inches.  Much  of 
this  mountain  rainfall  would  be  wasted  if  it  were  not  for 
irrigation  systems. 

The  United  States  Reclamation  Service  is  engaged 
in  reclaiming  desert  lands.     Its  work  is  on  "  govern- 


164 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  Roose- 
velt dam 


FIG.  129.  The  Roosevelt  Dam.  While  such  a  dam  is  being  constructed,  the 
river  is  generally  carried  out  of  its  course  by  means  of  a  tunnel  that  pierces  the 
mountain  side. 

ment  projects."  ("  Carey  Act  projects  "  are  works  of 
reclamation  undertaken  by  private  companies  under 
state  supervision  by  an  arrangement  with  the  Federal 
government.)  Already  thirty  irrigation  projects  furnish 
water  for  three  million  acres,  upon  which  in  one  year 
crops  worth  eighty  million  dollars  are  raised. 

One  of  our  largest  dams  is  in  Arizona,  across  the  Salt 
River.  It  was  built  by  the  government  and  was 
named  in  honor  of  Theodore  Roosevelt,  who  in  1911 
formally  opened  its  floodgates  (Fig.  129).  The  water 
held  back  by  the  dam  makes  a  lake  from  one  to  two 
miles  wide  and  twenty-five  miles  long.  This  irrigation 
system  furnishes  water  for  two  hundred  and  twenty 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation  165 

thousand    acres.     Besides    this,  it    gives    water   power 

capable  of  generating  electricity  enough  to  do  the  work 

of  nearly   ten   thousand  horses.     The  largest  dam  in 

the  West  is  the  Elephant  Butte  Dam  across  the  Rio   The  dams 

Grande  River.     It  irrigates  parts  of  Texas  and  New 


Mexico.     The  highest,  though  not  the  largest,  dam  in  4rr?M' 

the  world  is  the  one  at  Arrow  Rock,  across  the  Boise 

River,  in  Idaho.     The  largest  masonry  dam  in  the  world 

is  the  Assuan  Dam  in  Egypt  across  the  Nile  River.     It  TheAssuan 

is  one  hundred  and  twelve  feet  high  in  the  highest  place 

and  is  more  than  a  mile  long. 

The  principal  ways  of  using  irrigation  water  are  sprin-  Four   ways 
kling,  furrow  irrigation,  level  check  flooding,  and  hillside  °fn  irri^ai~ 
flooding. 

Gardens  and  other  small  tracts  are  often  watered  by  Sprinkling 
sprinkling  with  a  garden  hose.  Sometimes  a  system 
of  overhead  pipes  is  run  above  the  area  to  be  watered, 
and  the  gardener  has  but  to  turn  on  the  water.  In 
very  hot  weather,  if  plants  are  sprinkled  during  the 
middle  of  the  day  the  leaves  may  be  scalded.  The  late 
afternoon  is  a  better  time  to  sprinkle. 

The  chief  objection  to  sprinkling  is  that  usually  not 
enough  water  is  applied  at  once.     Whatever  method  of 
irrigation  is  used,  the  water  should  flow  until  the  ground 
is  thoroughly  soaked  to  a  depth  of  two  feet  or  more. 
Then  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  irrigation 
for  at  least  ten  days  or  two  weeks.     If  the  surface  of   The  effects 
the  ground  is  kept  wet,  and  the  soil  below  is  allowed  ^nddeep 
to  become  dry,  the  roots  will  spread  out  near  the  surface,  wetting 

compared 

Thoroughly  wetting  the  ground  to  a  good  depth  and 
allowing  it  to  become  dry  on  top  encourages  the  roots  to 


i66 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Furrow 

irrigation; 

advantages 


Arrange- 
ment of 
furrows 


Check 
flooding 


FIG.  130.     Furrow  irrigation  near  Richland,  Idaho. 

grow  down.  And  deep-rooted  plants  get  more  plant  food 
and  do  not  suffer  so  much  from  an  occasional  dry  spell. 

Running  the  water  in  furrows  between  the  rows  is 
usually  more  satisfactory  than  sprinkling  (Fig.  130). 
It  wets  deeper  than  sprinkling  often  does,  and  as  it 
leaves  the  foliage  dry  it  does  no  harm  on  a  hot  day. 
The  water  in  the  furrows  should  run  slowly  enough  so 
that  it  will  just  reach  the  lower  end  of  the  row  before 
the  last  of  it  sinks  into  the  ground.  In  watering  or- 
chards several  furrows  are  made  between  two  rows  of 
trees,  but  in  watering  such  a  crop  as  potatoes  one  furrow 
for  every  other  row  is  sufficient  if  the  water  is  allowed 
to  run  long  enough.  The  best  way  to  make  sure  that 
all  the  ground  is  wet  to  a  sufficient  depth  is  to  use 
a  spade. 

The  check  system  of  flooding  a  field  is  suitable  only 
where  the  ground  is  nearly  level.  Before  the  crop  is 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation  167 

planted,  the  whole  field  is  laid  off  like  a  checkerboard 
in  areas  small  enough  so  that  each  one  can  be  graded  Grading 
perfectly  level.     Each  level  area  or  "  check  "  is  sur- 
rounded with  ridges  of  dirt,  so  that  water  several  inches 
deep  can  stand  on  the  check  until  it  soaks  into  the  soil. 
One  or  more  of  the  checks  may  be  flooded  at  a  time,  Applying 
depending  on  the  amount  of  water  available.     Some-     e  water 
times  the  checks  consist  of  strips  fifty  or  a  hundred 
feet  wide  and  perhaps  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  made 
level  from  side  to  side,  but  sloping  from  end  to  end. 
Water  is  flooded  in  at  the  upper  end  of  the  strip,  and 
the  gentle  slope  carries  it  through  to  the  other  end, 
thoroughly  soaking  the  whole  area.     The  check  system 
is  often  used    for  alfalfa   fields.     The  water  destroys 


W.  T.  SkUling 

FIG.  131.     A  miner's  inch  flowing.     The  water  level  is  kept  4  inches  above 

the  hole. 


i68 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Hillside 
flooding 


Measuring 
water  for 
irrigation ; 


many  gophers,  which  make  themselves  a  pest  by  bur- 
rowing in  cultivated  fields. 


FIG.  132.     A  box  used  for  measuring  irrigation  water.     Each  inch  in  width 
of  opening  allows  the  escape  of  one  miner's  inch. 

Sloping  land  is  often  flooded  without  either  furrows 
or  checks.  The  water  is  carried  along  the  upper  part 
of  the  field  in  a  trench,  which  may  be  winding  in  order 
to  have  a  gradual  fall.  The  sides  of  the  trench  are 
broken  at  places  with  a  shovel,  so  that  the  water  may 
flow  out  and  spread  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  field. 
This  method  of  flooding  is  suitable  for  such  crops  as 
grain,  where  furrows  would  be  troublesome. 

There  are  several  methods  of  measuring  irrigation 
water  in  order  to  know  how  much  to  pay  for  it,  but  in 


the  miner's  most  irrigation  districts  water  is  paid  for  by  the  "  miner's 
inch,"  a  unit  of  measurement  that  was  used  by  the 
Western  miners  in  pioneer  days  (Figs.  131  and  132).  It 
is  the  amount  of  water  which,  flowing  continuously,  can 
pass  through  a  hole  an  inch  square  if  the  middle  of  the 
hole  is  four  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
measuring  box.  In  some  states  the  depth  of  water 
used  is  four  and  a  half  or  five  inches.  Of  course,  the 
deeper  the  water  stands  above  the  outlet,  the  more  the 
pressure  and  the  faster  the  flow. 


Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation  169 

Another  measure  according  to  which  the  farmer  may  The  acre 
be  charged  for  the  water  he  uses  is  the  "  acre  foot."  ^°° 
The  acre  foot  is  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  cover 
one  acre  a  foot  deep.     This  is  equal  to  43,560  cubic  feet. 

A  way  of  stating  the  measure  of  water  where  large  The 
quantities  are  flowing,  as  in  a  river,  is  to  tell  the  number  v^^Te 
of  cubic  feet  per  second  passing  a  certain  point. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Pour  water  on  freshly  spaded  ground  and  on  uncultivated 
ground.     Notice  the  difference  in  absorption. 

2.  To  show  that  water  rises  in  packed  soil,  make  footprints  in 
freshly  cultivated  soil  and  notice  early  on  the  next  morning  that 
the  surface  in  the  tracks  is  wet  while  the  surface  of  the  loose  ground 
is  dry. 

3.  Find  weeds  or  other  plants  growing  alone  and  notice  how 
much  larger  they  are   than  similar  plants  where   the   stand  is 
thick. 

4.  To  illustrate  a  miner's  inch,  make  a  water-tight  box  and  cut 
an  inch  hole  in  one  side  near  the  bottom.     Run  water  into  it  fast 
enough  to  keep  the  water  level  four  inches  above  the  middle  of 
the  hole  (Fig.  131). 

References 

"Management  of  Soil  to  Conserve  Moisture."     Farmers'  Bulletin  266. 
"Practical    Information    for    Beginners    in    Irrigation."     Farmers' 
Bulletin  864. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

SUPPLYING   SOIL   NEEDS 

What  Nature  asks,  that  Nature  also  grants. 

JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL 

Soil  needs  AN  Illinois  farmer,  who  had  spent  his  life  in  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  raise  profitable  crops,  wept  when 
he  was  shown  that  the  addition  of  one  fertilizer  (potash) 
would  have  made  his  fields  fertile.  Every  farmer  should 
find  out  whether  or  not  his  land  is  naturally  lacking  in 
any  of  the  essential  plant-food  materials  and  how  he 
can  remedy  such  lack  (Fig.  133).  He  should  also  find 
out  what  necessary  elements  his  fields  are  losing  and  how 
he  can  replace  the  loss  (Chapter  Four) . 

Commercial  The  three  elements  most  commonly  needed  as  fer- 
tilizers are,  as  we  have  already  seen,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium.  These  are  all  found  in  manure. 
They  are  often  supplied,  either  singly  or  mixed,  by 
fertilizer  dealers,  who  get  them,  not  from  manure,  but 
from  certain  minerals  or  from  slaughter-house  refuse. 
When  supplied  in  this  way  they  are  called  "  commercial 
fertilizers,"  and  a  mixture  of  all  three  of  these  necessary 
plant  foods  is  called  a  "  complete  "  fertilizer.  (Exp.  i.) 
TWO  other  plant-food  elements,  calcium  (contained  in 
lime)  and  sulfur,  are  sometimes  necessary. 

Commercial       Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  are  most  corn- 
names          monly  used  in  compounds  known  as  "  nitrates,"  "  phos- 
phates "   (or  "  phosphoric  acid"),  and  "  potash";  and 
fertilizers  containing  the  three  elements  are  often  loosely 
referred  to  by  these  names  of  their  compounds. 

To  show  how  many  pounds  per  acre  of  the  three 

170 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


171 


Nature  Study  Review 

FIG.  133.  The  lack  of  a  single  plant-food  element  prevents  growth.  In. the 
first  jar  of  pure  sand,  none  of  the  essential  elements  has  been  added;  in  the 
second  jar,  all  except  nitrogen  have  been  added.  The  third  jar  lacks  only 
phosphorus ;  the  fourth  contains  phosphorus  and  lacks  only  potassium  (chemical 
symbol  K).  The  fifth  jar  contains  all  the  necessary  plant-food  elements. 
Except  for  these  differences,  the  five  lots  of  corn  grew  under  exactly  the  same 
conditions. 

principal  plant-food  elements  each  of  several  different  The  amount 
crops  requires  in  one  year,  the  list  below  is  given.     It  is  JJ^  r 
taken  from  Dr.   Hopkins'  work  on  Soil  Fertility  and  material  a 

crop 

Permanent  Agriculture.  requires 


NITROGEN 

PHOSPHORUS 

POTASSIUM 

TOO  bushels  of  corn     

148 

23 

71 

100  bushels  of  oats     

97 

16 

68 

50  bushels  of  wheat       .... 

96 

16 

58 

25  bushels  of  soy  beans      .     .     . 

159 

21 

73 

400  bushels  of  potatoes  .... 

84 

17-3 

1  20 

25  tons  of  sugar  beets  .... 

100 

18 

157 

8  tons  of  alfalfa      

400 

36 

192 

172 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


How  crops 


of  food 
material 
that  t 


Two  ways 


the  soil  of 
nitrogen 


How  lack  of 

affects 
plants 

Supplying 


From  this  list  it  would  appear  that  some  crops  exhaust 
tne  land  of  a  given  element  much  faster  than  other 

crops  do  ;     for  example,  a  beet  crop  removes  a  large 

' 
amount  of  potassium.     Apparently  alfalfa  and  beans, 

recluiring  more  nitrogen  than  any  other  crops  men- 
tioned, would  very  soon  exhaust  the  soil  of  this 
valuable  food.  But  it  will  be  remembered  that  both 
alfalfa  and  beans  belong  to  the  family  of  legumes  and 
are  able  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  as  well  as  from 
the  soil. 

Nitrogen.  Excepting  the  legumes,  plants  take  nitro- 
&en  mamty  fr°m  tne  humus  of  the  soil,  and  not  from 

the  air.     The  soil  more  often  lacks  nitrogen  than  any 

.  _T. 

other    plant-food    element.     Nitrogen    is    a    substance 

that  readily  leaches  out  of  the  soil,  its  compounds  being 
very  soluble,  like  salt  or  sugar.  Not  only  is  nitrogen 
drained  away  by  water,  but  under  some  conditions  it 
escapes  in  large  quantities  into  the  air  as  a  gas.  Ex- 
perimenters found  that  in  a  field  growing  grain  con- 
tinually, six  times  as  much  nitrogen  was  lost  from  the 
soil  each  year  as  was  required  to  make  the  crop.  Twenty- 
five  pounds  were  removed  with  the  grain,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pounds  escaped  into  the  air  and  in  the 
drainage. 

Where  the  supply  of  nitrogen  is  low,  plants  will  be  of 
a  pale  green  color  and  their  growth  will  be  poor.  More 
t]ian  anv  other  plant-food  element,  nitrogen  promotes 
the  growth  of  leaves  and  stems.  Nitrogen  may  be  sup- 
plied to  the  soil  either  by  raising  a  leguminous  crop  such 
as  clover  or  field  peas  and  plowing  it  in,  or  by  adding 
a  fertilizer  containing  nitrogen. 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


173 


FIG.  134.     A  sodium  nitrate  refinery  in  the  desert  of  northern  Chile.     Chile 
once  fought  a  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia  for  the  control  of  the  nitrate  fields. 

A  nitrogen  fertilizer  should  be  put  into  the  soil  at  the  when  to 
time  of  planting  or  just  before  planting,  so  that  the  ^ly^n 
plants  may  secure  their  nitrogen  while  they  are  young,  fertilizer 
If  the  nitrogen  is  given  after  the  crop  is  partly  grown, 
it  will  stimulate  new  growth  of  leafy  material  and  the 
fruit  will   be  late  in  maturing.      On  the  other  hand, 
if  it  is  applied  too  early  it  is  liable  to  be  washed  out 
and  lost. 

The  simplest  form  of  nitrogen  fertilizer  is  a  substance  Nitrate  of 
called  "saltpeter"  or  "nitrate  of  soda."  (Exp.  2.) 
It  looks  very  much  like  common  salt,  but  it  contains  a 
large  amount  of  nitrogen  (one  sixth  of  its  total  by  weight). 
Unfortunately  this  salt  is  becoming  very  scarce.  The 
only  very  large  supply  of  it  is  found  in  northern  Chile 
along  the  "rainless  coast"  (Fig.  134).  The  sodium 
nitrate,  or  "  Chile  saltpeter,"  lies  in  beds  from  a  few  inches 


soda 


174 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


A  fertilizer 
made  from 
ammonia 


to  twelve  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  dug  up  and  purified  by 
separating  from  it  the  common  salt  that  is  found  with 
it.  It  is  then  shipped  from  Valparaiso  to  many  parts 
of  the  world.  About  three  fourths  of  it  is  used  for 
fertilizer,  and  much  of  the  rest  is  used  for  making  ex- 
plosives. 

Household  ammonia  contains  nitrogen  and  is  often 
put  into  water  that  is  used  on  house  plants.  But  as 
it  evaporates  so  readily,  ammonia  is  not  suitable  for  use 
as  a  field  fertilizer.  It  is  easily  changed,  however,  to  a 
solid  compound  called  "  sulfate  of  ammonia."  This  is 
done  by  adding  sulfuric  acid  to  the  ammonia  and  evapo- 
rating the  mixture.  (Exp.  3.)  The  dry,  solid  sulfate 
of  ammonia,  looking  like  salt,  is  left.  This  is  a  very 
valuable  fertilizer.  It  contains  more  nitrogen  than  any 


Illustrated  World 


FIG.  135.     Sulfate  of  ammonia,  an  important  nitrogen  fertilizer,  made  as  a 
by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas  and  coke. 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


m 


Robert  Cusfiman  Murphy 

FIG.  136.     Part  of  a  guano  field  on  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Peru.     The  birds 
are  pelicans  and  cormorants,  the  principal  producers  of  guano. 

other  fertilizer.     Ammonia  is  mostly  made  from  coal  How 
as  a  by-product  when  illuminating  gas  is  manufactured.  clame  i0  ^e 
Coal  can  be  made  to  yield  this  nitrogen  compound  be- 
cause  coal  was  formed  from  vegetable  matter.     The 
coal-forming  plants   took   the   nitrogen   from   the   soil 
millions  of  years  ago  (Fig.  135). 

Guano  is  a  valuable  commercial  fertilizer  that  con-  Guano 
sists  of  the  dung  of  sea  fowls  or  bats.  A  good  quality 
of  guano  contains  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium, 
in  compounds.  Most  of  the  old  deposits  of  guano  have 
been  exhausted.  The  supply  that  continues  comes  for 
the  most  part  from  a  number  of  islands  off  the  coast 
of  Peru,  where  the  guano-producing  birds  are  carefully 
protected  by  the  government  (Fig.  136).  • 


176. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Packing- 
house 
fertilizers 


Dried 
blood 

The 

nitrogen   in 
the  air 


The 

electrical 
method  of 
fixing 
nitrogen 


The  Haber 
process; 
fixing  nitro- 
gen under 
pressure 


In  large  meat-packing  establishments  there  are 
enormous  quantities  of  offal.  The  offal  fat  is  made  into 
grease ;  but  the  bones,  horns,  and  hoofs  (after  the  glue 
products  have  been  extracted),  and  the  blood  and  animal 
waste  are  cooked  and  dried  for  use  as  fertilizers.  Of 
these  products  the  dried  blood  is  the  richest  in  nitrogen 
and  the  quickest  to  give  up  its  nutriment  to  plants. 

If  plants  were  able  to  absorb  nitrogen  directly  from 
the  air  and  use  it  as  food,  they  would  have  an  abundance, 
for  four  fifths  of  the  air  is  nitrogen.  The  air  presses 
down  upon  every  square  inch  of  surface  with  a  weight 
of  nearly  fifteen  pounds.  About  four  fifths  of  this 
weight  is  due  to  nitrogen  and  this  gives  almost  twelve 
pounds  as  the  weight  of  nitrogen  upon  each  square  inch. 
As  ordinary  plants  are  unable  to  use  this  gas,  chemists 
have  invented  several  methods  for  making  it  unite  with 
other  elements  in  compounds  suitable  for  plant-food 
material.  One  of  these  methods  consists  in  passing 
strong  electric  sparks  through  the  air,  making  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  unite.  From  this  compound  a  good  fertilizer 
can  be  made.  In  Norway,  water  power  equal  to  the 
strength  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  horses  is  used  to  gen- 
erate electricity  for  capturing  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

The  latest  and  most  efficient  method  of  fixing  nitro- 
gen was  invented  by  a  scientist  named  Haber.  In  his 
process  hydrogen  gas  is  mixed  with  nitrogen  of  the  air, 
and  the  gases  are  subjected  to  great  pressure.  They 
unite  to  form  ammonia,  which  is  easily  changed  into 
a  good  nitrogen  fertilizer.  This  process  is  not  limited 
to  countries  having  enormous  water  power,  as  the 
electric  method  is.  The  machinery  used  can  be  driven 


Supplying  Soil  Needs  177 

by  steam  engines.  The  Haber  invention  gives  promise 
of  an  increased  fertilizer  supply,  and  therefore  of  an 
increased  food  supply  for  the  world. 

What  it  takes  the  greatest  skill  of  man  and  the  most  The  work 
powerful  machinery  to  do,  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  fixing"09611 
in  the  nodules  of  legume  roots  are  quietly  and  con-  bacteria 
tinually  doing  all  over  the  world  —  changing  the  nitro- 
gen gas  of  the  air,  which  the  plants  cannot  use,  into 
compounds  which  they  can  use  (Chapter  Four). 

Phosphorus.  The  form  in  which  phosphorus  is  Phosphates 
usually  found  in  fertilizers  is  phosphate  of  lime;  that 
is,  phosphorus '  combined  with  lime.  Bones  are  com- 
posed largely  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Phosphorus  in 
mineral  form  is  distributed  throughout  the  earth, 
but  it  is  always  combined  with  other  elements.  Pure 
phosphorus  glows  in  the  dark,  and  it  takes  fire  sponta- 
neously if  left  exposed  to  the  air.  A  compound  of  phos- 
phorus is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  matches. 

Phosphorus  is  but  slightly  soluble,  and  it  is,  therefore,  Loss  of 
not  so  easily  lost  from  the  soil  by  leaching  as  nitrogen  is.  ^romihe™ 
A  crop  of  forty  bushels  of  wheat  raised  on  an  acre  will  soil 
remove  twenty-eight  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  from  the 
soil,  the  grain  taking  twenty-one  pounds  and  the  straw 
seven  pounds. 

Bones  and  phosphate  rocks  are  the  two  materials  out  Sources  of 
of   which   the   phosphate   fertilizers   of   commerce   are  Cpf^phate 
made.     Phosphate  rock  is  found  in  Florida  and  other  fertilizers 
Southern  states,  and  bone  comes  from  the  meat-packing 
establishments.     Both  bone  and  rock  have  to  be  ground 
fine  to  be  of  use,  and  even  then  the  phosphate  dissolves 
very  slowly  in  the  soil.     To  make  it  more  soluble,  the 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Super- 
phosphate 


Potash 


Potash- 
loving 
crops 


Sources  of 
potash 


Why  lime 
may  be 
lacking 


material  is  treated  with  sulf  uric -acid.  It  is  then  called. 
"  acid  phosphate  "  or  "  superphosphate."  The  acid  that 
is  used  is  neutralized  by  the  lime  in  the  bone  or  rock,  so 
that  it  does  no  harm  to  the  soil. 

Potassium.  There  are  large  quantities  of  potassium 
in  the  soil,  but  it  is  always  in  compounds.  And  most 
of  these  are  so  insoluble  that  the  plants  'cannot  benefit 
by  them.  For  this  reason  it  is  often  necessary  to  fer- 
tilize the  ground  with  soluble  potash  compounds,  which 
the  plants  can  readily  absorb. 

Clover  and  the  other  leguminous  crops  need  potash, 
and  fruit  trees  in  bearing  should  be  well  supplied  with 
it.  More  than  half  of  the  mineral  matter  of  fruit  is 
potash.  The  potato,  also,  is  a  potash-loving  plant. 

To  obtain  potash  as  a  fertilizer,  the  simplest  method  is 
to  use  wood  ashes.  (Exp.  4.)  But  the  supply  of  these 
ashes  is  very  limited,  and  coal  ashes  do  not  contain 
enough  potash  to  make  them  of  any  value.  The  chief 
commercial  source  of  this  fertilizer  is  a  vast  deposit  of 
various  potash  salts  near  Stassfurt,  Germany.  During 
the  war  we  could  not  get  German  potash,  and  for  that 
reason  began  to  develop  our  own  potash  resources. 
Most  of  the  home  supply  has  been  obtained  from  the 
brine  of  salt  lakes  in  Nebraska,  Utah,  and  California. 

Lime.  In  nearly  all  regions  of  heavy  rainfall,  lime, 
which  is  somewhat  soluble,  is  likely  to  be  deficient  in 
the  soil  (Fig.  137).  In  such  places  crops  would  be 
greatly  benefited  by  its  use.  Lime  is  applied  rather  to 
improve  the  soil  than  to  supply  a  plant-food  material, 
though  it  serves  both  purposes. 

When  used  on  soils  that  need  it,  lime  has  the  follow- 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


179 


FIG. 


137.     The  white  heaps  consist  of  lime  that  is  ready  to  be  spread 
over  the  field. 


ing  effects :    (i)  In  clay  soil  it  binds  the  fine  particles  Five  bene- 
together  into  larger  particles.     Thus  the  clay  becomes  the  use'of 
like  a  sandy  soil.     It  loses  its  stickiness  and  does  not  lime 
bake  so  badly.     It  becomes  easier  to  cultivate.     (Exp.  5.) 
(2)  It  furnishes  calcium,  one  of  the  ten  elements  that 
are  essential  plant-food  materials.     (3)  It  "  sweetens  " 
a  sour  soil.     (See  page  34.)     (4)  It  is  useful  to  the  bene- 
ficial bacteria  in  the  soil,  as  these  cannot  thrive  in  a  sour 
soil.     (5)  It  aids  decay  and  the  formation  of  humus. 
Soils  that  are  limed  need  to  have  enough  organic  matter 
added  to  them  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  humus,  the 
decay  of  which  is  hastened. 

The  word  "  lime  "  as  used  by  farmers  may  mean  any  Kinds  of 
one  of  the  following  compounds :      (i)   burnt  lime  or 
"  quicklime,"  such  as  is  used  by  plasterers;    (2)  water- 
slaked  or  "  hydrated  "  lime,  made  by  putting  water  on 


lime 


i8o 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Gypsum 


The  value 
of  barnyard 


One  mans 
success 
with  crops, 
his  method 
of  using 
manure 


quicklime;  (3)  ground  limestone  and  air-slaked  lime, 
the  latter  being  made  by  letting  quicklime  or  water- 
slaked  lime  stand  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  long  time. 
These  all  serve  the  same  purposes  when  used  on  the 
land.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  quicklime  or 
hydrated  lime  on  a  crop,  as  they  may  burn  it. 

Gypsum,  often  called  "  land  plaster,"  also  contains 
calcium,  along  with  sulfur.  It  has  recently  given  re- 
markable results  when  applied  to  alfalfa  land  in  the 
West.  Perhaps  the  reason  for  this  is  that  the  land 
upon  which  it  was  used  lacked  sulfur. 

Barnyard  manure.  There  are  many  reasons  why 
fertilizer  that  comes  from  stables  and  cattle  corrals  is 
more  commonly  used  by  farmers  than  any  other.  It  is 
found  on  every  farm  and  costs  the  farmer  nothing  but  a 
little  care  and  labor.  In  some  respects  it  does  the  crop 
more  good  than  do  the  mineral  fertilizers  of  commerce. 
(Exp.  6.)  In  spite  of  the  great  value  of  manure  to  the 
soil  and  the  small  expense  and  trouble  of  making  good 
use  of  it,  many  farmers  still  use  it  to  fill  holes  about 
their  land.  Others  who  do  put  it  on  the  fields  allow 
much  of  it  to  go  to  waste.  But  farmers  who  understand 
its  value  use  manure  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  add 
both  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  crops. 

A  Pennsylvania  dairyman,  by  good  management, 
made  his  farm  so  productive  that  people  came  from  great 
distances  to  study  his  methods.  The  Department  of 
Agriculture  had  a  bulletin  prepared  explaining  the  causes 
of  this,  man's  great  success  in  growing  crops.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  these  was  the  way  in  which  the  barn- 
yard fertilizer  was  used.  Every  morning  it  was  hauled 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


181 


Harvester  Co. 


FIG.  138.    A  manure  spreader  in  operation.     The  machine  can  be  set  to  spread 
a  fixed  amount  to  the  acre. 


to  the  fields  and  spread  (Fig.  138),  thus  preventing  any 
of  it  from  being  wasted  and,  also,  keeping  the  barns  clean. 
To  make  sure  that  nothing  was  lost,  a  gutter  at  the  back 
of  the  stalls  was  kept  filled  with  an  absorbent  material 
(leaf  mold) .  Thus  the  liquid  fertilizer,  containing  a  great 
amount  of  nitrogen,  was  saved  to  be  hauled  to  the  fields. 

Frequently  removing  all  manure  from  the  stable  and 
spreading  it  on  the  fields  is  the  surest  way  to  prevent 
loss.  If  it  can  be  plowed  in  immediately,  it  does  the  land 
the  greatest  amount  of  good.  If,  however,  it  is  not 
convenient  to  haul  and  spread  the  manure  regularly, 
there  are  different  ways  in  which  it  can  be  stored  for 
several  months  without  very  great  loss. 

The  thrifty  farmers  of  Holland  preserve  the  good 
qualities  of  stable  manure  by  using  a  deep  stall,  dug 
several  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 


Applying 
manure  to 
the  fields 
at  once 


Storing 
manure; 
the  Dutch 
method 


182 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Keeping 
manure 
sheltered 
and  wetting 
it 


The  effects 
of  exposure 
to  rain  and 
air 


animals  tread  on  the  manure,  which  is  mixed  with  clean 
straw  used  as  bedding,  and  so  pack  it  that  air  does  not 
enter  freely.  Keeping  the  air  out  prevents  chemical 
changes  that  would  cause  much  of  the  strength  to  escape 
in  the  form  of  gases.  The  bottom  of  the  stall  is  tamped 
or  cemented  to  prevent  leakage. 

Another  method  of  storing  manure  is  to  pile  it  in  a 
heap  under  shelter,  keeping  it  so  wet  that  not  much  air 
can  penetrate  it.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  on 
so  much  water  that  some  of  it.  will  drain  away,  carrying 
off  dissolved  plant-food  materials. 

Figure  139  shows  a  wasteful  method  of  keeping  manure 

that  is  all  too  common. 
The  manure"  is  thrown 
in  a  loose  heap,  not  only 
unsheltered,  but  even 
under  the  drip  of  the 
eaves.  A  great  deal  of 
nitrogenous  material, 
potash,  and  phosphate 
are  thus  sure  to  be  dis- 
solved from  the  manure 
and  washed  away  by  the 
rain  (Fig.  140  and  Exp. 
7 ).  Also,  the  manure 
being  alternately  wet 
and  dry,  the  air  acts  on 
U.S.D.A.  ft  chemically  so  as  to 

FiG.  139.    The  manure  in  this  heap  loses  .   .          , 

most  of  its  value  through  leaching,  and  the  CaUSC  quantities  OI  nitro- 

boards  against  which  it  is  piled  rot;    flies  (TQY\.     to     CSCaDC     as     °*as 

breed    in    the    manure,    and    mosquitoes 

breed  in  the  pool.  This     aCCOUntS     for     the 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


183 


u.  K.  n.  A. 

FIG.  140.     In  a  covered  barnyard  like  this,  manure  can  be  saved  with  little 
loss  through  leaching. 

strong  odor  of  ammonia  gas  (containing  nitrogen)  that 
is  often  to  be  noticed  about  stables.  Sometimes  the 
heat  of  the  chemical  action  becomes  so  great  that  the 
manure  becomes  "  fire-fanged  "  ;  that  is,  it  turns  white 
like  ashes  and  is  not  of  much  more  value  than  ashes. 

A  compost  -heap  is  a  mixture  of  manure,  soil,  refuse  Compost 
such  as  weeds,  and  plants  left  in  the  garden  after  the 
crop  is  gathered  (Fig.  141).  Bean  and  pea  vines  are 
especially  valuable,  since  they  contain  much  nitrogen. 
Matter  that  might  otherwise  be  wasted  is  deposited  in 
the  compost  heap,  and  the  bacteria  turn  it  into  material 
that  is  excellent  for  greenhouse  work  and  for  use  in 
seed  boxes. 

Flies  very  commonly  carry  disease,  and  that  is  the 


1 84 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Screening 
manure 
from  flies 


The  money 
value  of 
manure  as 
plant  food 


Other 
value ; 
humus 


main  reason  why  we  should  do  all  that  we  can  to  keep 
them  from  increasing.  (Exp.  9.)  The  chief  breeding 
place  of  flies  is  the  manure  pile.  (Exp.  8.)  The  eggs 
are  laid  there,  and  in  a  day  or  two  hatch  as  tiny  white 
larvae  (maggots),  which  form  pupae  that  soon  turn  into 
flies  (Figs.  144,  145,  146,  and  147).  Removing  the 
breeding  places  of  flies  is  of  more  value  than  killing 
thousands  of  the  insects.  It  is  the  only  way  to  de- 
stroy flies  effectively.  It  is  a  simple  matter  to  keep 
stables  clean  and  to  have  the  manure  heap  covered 
and  closely  screened  to  keep  the  flies  from  laying 
their  eggs  there.  Many  careful  farmers  also  screen 
their  barns  as  they  do  their  houses. 

Good  average  manure  mixed  with  straw  that  has  been 
used  for  bedding  contains  about  seven  pounds  of  phos- 
phate fertilizer  and  about  ten  pounds  each  of  nitrogen 
and  potash  to  the  ton.  Now,  the  ordinary  market  value 
of  phosphate  and  potash  in  commercial  fertilizer  is 
5  cents  a  pound,  and  the  price  of  nitrogen  is  about  15 
cents  a  pound.  On  this  basis  the  phosphate  in  one  ton 
is  worth  35  cents,  the  potash  50  cents,  and  the  nitrogen 
$1.50.  This  would  make  the  plant  food  in  a  ton  of 
manure  worth  $2.35. 

We  must  remember,  however,  that  manure  has  im- 
portant uses  in  the  soil  besides  supplying  plant-food  ma- 
terials. It  becomes  changed  into  humus,  making  the 
soil  more  porous  and  spongelike,  so  that  it  receives  and 
retains  water  better.  It  contains  millions  of  bacteria 
that  aid  in  preparing  plant-food  materials.  It  serves 
as  food  for  the  beneficial  bacteria  that  are  already  in 
the  soil. 


Supplying  Soil  Needs 


185 


W.  T.  SkUlina 

FIG.  141.  Making  a  compost  heap.  The  boy  at  the  left  is  putting  on  dirt, 
the  one  at  the  right  is  adding  manure,  and  the  third  is  bringing  refuse  from  the 
garden. 

Manure  has  a  very  permanent  good  effect  upon  the 
soil.  At  the  great  English  experiment  station  at 
Rothamstead  a  field  was  regularly  manured  each  year 
for  twenty  years.  Then  for  twenty  years  more  no 
fertilizer  was  used.  But  in  all  this  time  the  field  did 
not  entirely  lose  the  good  effects  of  the  manure  which 
had  been  used.  It  continued  to  yield  a  better  crop 
than  did  a  similar  field  that  had  never  been  fertilized. 

In  using  manure  it  should  be  remembered  that  too 
much  will  kill  the  crop  instead  of  benefiting  it.  From 
two  to  eight  tons  to  the  acre  is  considered  a  good  quan- 
tity for  an  ordinary  field  crop.  Market  gardeners  some- 
times use  as  much  as  forty  or  fifty  tons  to  the  acre. 
(This  would  be  about  two  pounds  to  each  square  foot.) 


How  long 
the  effects 
of  manure 
last 


Precautions 
in  the  use  of 
manure; 
quantity 


i86 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Too  much 
straw 


Effect  on 
dry  land 


The 

increased 
yield  due 
to  fertilizer 

A  58-year 
test 


If  there  is  much  coarse,  dry  straw  with  the  manure, 
only  a  moderate  amount  should  be  put  into  the  soil. 
A  layer  of  straw  a  few  inches  under  the  surface  will 
break  the  connection  between  the  surface  soil  and  the 
moist  earth  below,  so  that  capillary  action  cannot  bring 
water  up  to  the  roots  of  the  crop. 

In  very  dry  climates  fresh  manure  in  large  amounts 
may  burn  out  the  crop.  The  water  which  should 
nourish  the  plants  is  used  in  fermenting  the  fertilizer. 
Only  manure  that  has  already  been  rotted  should  be 
used  where  the  soil  is  likely  to  become  very  dry. 

The  farmer  will  be  well  rewarded  for  his  use  of  fer- 
tilizer. Experiments  with  and  without  fertilizer  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  more  than  fifty  years  were 
made  at  the  Rothamstead  experiment  station.  The 
fertilizer  used  on  one  plot  of  wheat  each  year  was  barn- 
yard manure.  On  a  similar  plot,  wheat  was  raised 
without  any  fertilizer.  The  average  annual  yields  of 
wheat  in  bushels  for  different  periods  were  as  follows : 


1844-51 

1852-61 

1862-71 

1872-81 

1882-91 

1892-01 

Plot  not  fertilized 
Plot  manured  .     . 

17.2 
28 

15.9 

34-2 

14-5 

37-5 

10.4 

28.7 

12.6 

38.2 

12.3 
39-2 

The  unfertilized  plot,  in  the  latest  of  these  yields, 
showed  a  falling  off  of  about  one  third  from  tne  first 
yield,  while  the  plot  receiving  manure  showed  an  in- 
crease in  yield.  Even  from  the  start  about  twice  as 
much  wheat  was  produced  with  fertilizer  as  without, 
and  after  many  years  of  cropping  the  fertilized  field 
yielded  three  times  as  much  as  the  other. 


Supplying  Soil  Needs  187 

In  order  to  assure  himself  of  a  supply  of  manure,   Why  mixed 
every  farmer  should  keep  some  livestock.     If  he  does  ^t^9  IS 
so  he  makes  a  double  profit,  —  a  profit  on  feeding  the  mended 
grain  that  he  raises  and  a  profit  on  the  manure  that  is 
put  back  into  the  soil.     Grain  farming  without  keeping 
a  reasonable  number  of  farm  animals  is  called  "  soil 
robbing  "  ;  the  supply  of  humus  and  the  other  elements 
of  fertility  grows  less ;  the  soft  becomes  poorer,  and  so 
does  the  farmer.     That  is  why  those  who  best  under- 
stand the  science  of  agriculture  recommend  mixed  farm- 
ing —  the  raising  of  livestock  along  with  properly  rotated 
grain  crops. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1 .  Visit  a  fertilizer  store  and  copy  the  labels  on  the  bags  show- 
ing the  composition  of  the  fertilizers.     Bring  these  copies  to  class 
for  discussion. 

2.  Plant  two  rows  of  radishes,  sprinkling  a  little  sodium  nitrate 
or  a  little  complete  fertilizer  in  one  row  with  the  seeds.     Avoid 
using  too  much  fertilizer,  as  this  would  kill  the  plants. 

3.  Into  a  tablespoonful  or  more  of  dilute  sulfuric  acid  pour 
household  ammonia  until  the  acid  is  neutralized  and  the  mixture 
smells  of  ammonia.     Boil  away  the  water.     A  white  solid  will 
be  left.    This  is  sulfate  of  ammonia. 

4.  Soak  wood  ashes  in  a  bucket  for  several  days.     Pour  off 
the  clear  liquid  and  boil  it  away  to  get  the  dissolved  potash. 

5.  Thoroughly  dry  two  balls  of  wet  clay,  in  one  of  which  a  little 
lime  is  mixed.     Which  one  bakes  the  harder  in  the  sun? 

6.  Test  the  beneficial  effects  of  manure  by  raising  the  same 
kind  of  crop  on  each  of  two  small  garden  plots.     Fertilize  only 
one  of  the  plots,  by  digging  manure  into  the  soil. 

7.  Partly  fill  a  box  with  manure  and  pour  water  over  it  occa- 
sionally.    Catch  the  drippings  in  a  bucket,  and  notice  the  color. 
Florists  use  such  liquid  fertilizer  on  ferns.     What  does  this  experi- 
ment show  as  to  the  effect  of  rain  on  unprotected  manure  heaps  ? 


1 88  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

8.  Examine  a  manure  heap  in  warm  weather  for  the  eggs, 
larvae,  and  pupae  of  flies. 

9.  Make  a  cage  flytrap  of  wire  screen. 

References 

"Commercial  Fertilizers."     Farmers'  Bulletin  44. 
"The  Liming  of  Soils."     Farmers'  Bulletin  921. 
"Barnyard  Manure."     Farmers'  Bulletin  192. 
"House  Flies."     Farmers'  Bulletin  851. 


CHAPTER  THIRTEEN 

INSECT   ENEMIES   AND   ALLIES 

The  locust  is  fierce,  and  strong,  and  grim, 
And  a  mailed  man  is  afraid  of  him : 
He  comes  like  a  winged  shape  of  dread, 
With  his  shielded  back  and  his  armed  head, 
And  his  double  wings  for  hasty  flight, 
And  a  keen,  unwearying  appetite. 

MARY  HOWITT 

SCIENTISTS  have  named  not  far  from  half  a  million  Kinds  of 
kinds  (species)  of  insects,  and  they  estimate  that  the   insecs 
list  will  be  about  four  times  as  long  as  it  now  is,  when 
all  the  different  kinds  in  the  world  have  been  discovered. 
Their  numbers  are  greater  than  the  numbers  of  all  other 
kinds  of  animal  life  together. 

Insects  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  There  are  Why  their 
several  reasons  why  insects  are  able  to  keep  alive  in  ™™ 
such  enormous  numbers,  (i)  They  escape  easily  from 
enemies,  such  as  birds,  by  reason  of  their  small  size, 
their  power  of  flight,  and  their  protective  coloring 
which  makes  them  hard  to  see.  (2)  They  have  a  hard 
(chitinous)  covering  which  protects  them  from  injuries 
and  from  germs.  (3)  The  change  of  form  through 
which  insects  pass  allows  them  to  spend  a  good  deal  of 
their  life  in  a  protected  place,  as  the  caterpillar  in  the 
cocoon,  or  the  codling  moth,  during  its  larval  stage, 
within  an  apple.  (4)  They  reproduce  with  enormous 
rapidity.  The  eggs  hatch  quickly  and  the  young  soon 
come  to  maturity,  so  that  there  may  be  many  genera- 
tions of  some  insects  in  a  single  season.  The  fly,  for 
example,  may  lay  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  twenty 

189 


i  go 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


How  in- 
crease is 
checked 


Harmful 
and 

beneficial 
insects 


W.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  142.  Equipment  for  insect  study :  insects  on  cotton  under  glass;  butter- 
fly net ;  block  for  mounting ;  killing  bottle  (containing  cyanide) ;  insects 
mounted  on  pins  in  glass-covered  frame. 

eggs,  which,  within  three  weeks,  pass  through  two  inter- 
vening stages  and  become  mature  flies  ready  to  lay 
more  eggs. 

Insects  are  held  in  check  through  being  destroyed  by 
each  other  and  by  diseases  that  kill  great  numbers  of 
them.  If  their  increase  were  unhindered,  they  would 
destroy  all  the  food  that  is  needed  by  man  and  animals. 

In  their  search  for  food  insects  may  be  either  harmful 
or  beneficial  to  man.  If  there  were  no  insects,  some 
crops  would  produce  much  larger  harvests  and  some 
could  not  be  grown  at  all.  The  harm  done  by  chinch 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


191 


W.  T.  Stilling 


FIG.  143.     For  the  study  of  insects  as  they  live  on  a  plant,  a  cage  can  readily 
be  made  of  a  covered  lamp  chimney  or  the  top  of  a  flytrap. 

bugs,  army  worms,  and  grasshoppers  is  well  known. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  was  found  impossible  to  raise  red 
clover  in  Australia,  where  it  had  been  introduced  from 
England,  until  the  bumblebee,  the  clover's  friend,  was 
brought  also.  Smyrna  fig  trees  never  ripened  a  single 
specimen  of  their  fruit  in  California  until,  after  years 
of  failure,  a  little  insect  was  imported  from  Smyrna 
and  turned  loose  in  the  orchards  to  carry  pollen  from 
tree  to  tree. 

The  life  histories  of  insects.     The  higher  animals  are  Metamor- 
of  much  the  same  form  from  birth  to  old  age,  but  insects  p  OSIS 
pass  through  several  changes  during  their  lifetime  (Figs. 


1 92  Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 


FIGS.  144  and  145.  Stages  in  the  life  of  the  common  house  fly  or  filthy  fly : 
Fig.  144,  eggs  of  fly.  They  hatch  in  about  12  hours.  Fig.  145,  larva  of  fly. 
The  larvae  (maggots)  retain  this  form  for  about  5  days,  during  which  they  are 
very  active. 


144,  145,  146,  and  147).     Some  insects  look  as  different 

in  successive  stages  as  if  they  were  different  animals. 

Thus  the  caterpillar  becomes  in  time  a  chrysalis  and 

after  that  a  butterfly.     Such  change  from  one  form  into 

another  is  called  "  metamorphosis."     (Exp.  i.) 

Life  history       Some  insects  change  very  little  and  are  said  to  undergo 

grass.  incomplete   metamorphosis.     The  grasshopper   is    such 

hopper;        an  insect.     It  comes  from  the  egg  looking  so  much  like 

incomplete 

metamor-      an  adult  grasshopper  that  no  one  would  mistake  it  for 

phosis  any  otner  insect.  it  has  no  wings,  however.  It  eats 
hungrily  at  this  time,  and  whenever  its  skin  becomes  too 
small  for  its  growing  body  it  molts,  coming  forth  in  a  new 
and  larger  skin.  Its  wings  begin  to  develop,  and  they 
become  longer  at  each  molt.  Five  times  the  skin  is 
cast,  splitting  down  the  back  and  allowing  the  insect  to 
crawl  out.  In  its  incomplete  stage  the  insect  is  called 
a  "  nymph,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  full-grown  adult. 
At  the  fifth  molt  the  grasshopper  emerges  from  its  cast- 
off  skin  with  a  full-grown  pair  of  wings. 

When  an  egg  of  a  butterfly  hatches,  we  have  no  butterfly 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 
FIG.  146.     Pupa  of  fly.    The  resting  stage  lasts  for  about  5  days. 


Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 

FIG.  147.  The  adult  fly.  About  10  days  after  leaving  the  pupa  case,  the  fly 
is  ready  to  lay  a  batch  of  perhaps  120  eggs.  (Figures  144  to  147  are  from 
photographs  of  large  models.) 

at  all,  but  a  caterpillar.     There  are  many  insects  which   The  butter- 
in  form  resemble  a  worm,  when  they  are  first  hatched 
from  the  egg.     In  this  wormlike  stage  of  life  they  are 


called    "  larvae  "    (singular,    "  larva  ")•      Many  insects 


p  ' 


194 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  148.     A  silky  pupa  case  (Cecropia  moth)  and  a 
hard  pupa  case  (Sphinx  moth). 

do  practically  all  of  their  eating  and  growing  while  in 
the  larval  stage,  and  that  is  why  the  larger  number  of 
insects  are  more  destructive  then  than  at  any  other  time. 
The  pupa  After  a  caterpillar  has  grown  to  its  full  size,  it  becomes 
a  pupa  and  remains  at  rest  for  some  time  —  perhaps 
over  winter  —  protected  often  by  a  silky  cocoon  which 
it  has  woven  about  itself  (Fig.  148).  The  insect  in  the 
resting  stage  is  called  a  "  pupa."  Although  motion- 
less, or  nearly  so,  its  life  is  not  at  a  standstill.  A  won- 
derful change  is  taking  place,  so  that  when  the  covering 
is  broken  open  a  full-grown  butterfly  or  moth  emerges, 
ready  to  lay  more  eggs  to  start  again  this  series  of  changes. 
Thus,  in  such  insects  as  the  butterfly,  where  at  each 


A  change 
during  rest 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


195 


metamorphosis  there  is  a  complete  change,  we  have  four 
stages :  first  the  egg,  then  the  larva,  then  the  pupa,  and 
after  that  the  adult  insect.  Where  the  changes  are 
not  so  great,  as  in  the  grasshopper,  we  have  three  stages  : 
the  egg,  the  nymph,  and  the  adult. 

Sprays  for  killing  insects.  When  we  have  learned 
how  different  insects  feed,  we  can  more  intelligently 
set  about  to  destroy  them.  fcFor  example,  -there  are 
many  pests  that  live  on  the  inner  juices  of  plants  by 
thrusting  their  beaks  through  the  surface  and  sucking 
out  the  food.  It  would  plainly  be  labor  lost  to  try  to 
kill  these  insects  by  spraying  a  stomach  poison  on  the 
leaves.  Not  being  able  to  poison  their  food,  we  must 
use  what  is  called  a  "  contact  poison,"  that  is,  some- 
thing like  kerosene, 
which,  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  outside  of 
the  body,  will  kill  the 
insect  (Fig.  149). 

Insects  like  potato 
bugs  and  cutworms,  on 
the  other  hand,  feed 
directly  upon  the  leaves 
or  other  parts  of  plants, 
biting  off  pieces  and 
swallowing  them. 
Spraying  arsenical  poi- 
son upon  the  surface 
that  is  attacked  is  there- 
fore an  effective  remedy 
for  biting  insects. 


The  number 
of  stages 
of  insect 
life 


Feeding 
habits  of 
insects 


F.  E.  Lutz,  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 
FIG.  149.  Sucking  insects.  Aphids  (plant 
lice)  that  cause  curl  leaf  in  currants  (en- 
larged). These  aphids  work  on  the  under 
surfaces  of  the  leaves.  Kerosene  emulsion, 
to  reach  them,  should  be  applied  before  the 
leaves  become  much  curled.  The  two- 
spotted  ladybird  is  the  great  enemy  of  this 
pest. 


Sacking 
and  biting 
insects 


196  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

Sprays  Many  of  the  sucking  insects  have  softer  bodies  than 

the  biting  insects  usually  have,  which  makes  it  the  easier 


external  to  kill  them  with  contact  poisons.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  many  kinds  of  plant  lice.  The  sprays  used 
for  such  insects  may  be  either  of  a  kind  that  will  kill 
by  poisoning  through  the  soft  skin  of  the  insect,  or  by 
shutting  up  the  breathing  pores  (spiracles).  Tobacco 
extract  will  kill  by  poisoning  through  the  skin.  A  mix- 
ture containing  kerosene  (kerosene  emulsion)  will  close 
the  breathing  pores  (Fig.  150). 

Kerosene  Oil  will  not  dissolve  in  water,  but  if  oil  and  water  are 

shaken  up  together  the  oil  breaks  into  very  fine  drops 
which  remain  for  a  little  while  floating  all  through  the 
water.  Such  a  mixture  of  oil  and  water  is  called  an 
"  emulsion."  If  a  little  dissolved  soap  is  added,  the 
emulsion  will  be  much  more  perfect  and  the  oil  and  water 

Recipe  will  not  separate  so  readily.  A  good  recipe  for  making 
kerosene  emulsion  is  as  follows  :  Dissolve  a  one-inch 
cube  of  laundry  soap  in  a  pint  of  hot  water.  Remove 
from  fire  and  add  one  pint  of  kerosene.  Churn  with  egg 
beater.  For  trees  or  plants  in  foliage  dilute  this  mixture 
with  three  gallons  of  water.  For  dormant  trees  without 
leaves  dilute  with  only  one  gallon  of  water.  (Exp.  2.) 
Such  a  spray  is  used  for  killing  plant  lice  and  scale  insects. 
Just  before  being  used  it  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  by 
putting  the  nozzle  of  the  spray  pump  into  the  bucket  or 
barrel  and  pumping  the  mixture  through  until  it  is  creamy. 

•Soap-  A  simple  spray  that  will  kill  scale  insects  is  made  by 

spray  dissolving  one  pound  of  soap  powder  in  five  gallons  of 

water.  This  solution  should  not  be  used  on  tender 
plants,  as  it  may  burn  the  foliage. 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


197 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  150,  Using  a  compressed-air  type  of  sprayer.  Notice  the  upward  turn 
of  the  nozzle  for  underspraying.  Air  is  compressed  in  the  tank  by  means  of  a 
pump,  as  it  is  in  an  automobile  tire. 

The  most  effective  spray  for  plant  lice  is  tobacco  Tobacco 
extract.  It  may  be  purchased  as  a  very  concentrated 
liquid,  to  be  diluted  according  to  directions  on  the  bottle, 
or  it  may  be  made  by  soaking  tobacco  stems  in  a  bucket  of 
water.  Tobacco  spray  spreads  over  the  leaves  better 
if  a  little  soap  is  dissolved  in  it. 

The  biting  insects  are  usually  killed  with  a  stomach 
poison  made  of  some  compound  of  arsenic.     Paris  green 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Sprays  for 
biting 
insects ; 
internal 
poisons 

Lead 
arsenate 


The 

importance 
of  spraying 
at  the  right 
time 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  151. 


Apples  ready  to  spray  for  codling  worm  (left) ;  too  late 
to  spray  (right). 


has  long  been  used  for  this,  but  because  it  is  hard  on 
tender  plants  another  arsenical  compound  called  "  lead 
arsenate  "  is  now  more  commonly  used.  Lead  arsenate 
sticks  to  the  leaf  better  than  Paris  green  does,  and  as  it 
is  white  one  can  tell  more  easily  when  the  plants  are 
well  covered  with  it.  Lead  arsenate  is  sold  either  as  a 
paste  or  a  dry  powder.  Either  form  can  be  used  in  a 
water  spray,  or  the  powder  may  be  dusted  on  the  plants. 
The  dry  powder  sticks  better  if  it  is  used  when  the  dew  is 
on  the  leaves. 

The  time  when  an  insect  can  be  reached  and  affected 
most  easily  is  the  best  time  for  spraying.  The  case  of 
the  codling  moth  of  the  apple  illustrates  this.  The 
moth  lays  its  eggs  a  few  weeks  after  the  trees  have  begun 
to  bloom.  The  eggs  hatch  into  tiny  larvae,  and  these 
usually  crawl  to  the  blossom  ends  and  begin  gnawing 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


199 


their  way  into  the  fruit.  If  the  tree  is  sprayed  with 
lead  arsenate  after  the  petals  fall  and  before  the  calyx 
cup  closes  (Fig.  151),  the  larvae  are  killed.  But  if 
the  spraying  is  not  done  before  the  calyx  closes,  as  it 
does  very  soon,  the  poison  does"  no  good.  In  the  case 
of  scale  we  have  another  example  showing  how  necessary 
it  is  to  choose  the  right  time  for  spraying.  Scale  insects 
are  soft-bodied.  They  crawl  about  for  a  few  days  when 
first  hatched  and  then  settle  down  in  one  spot,  where 
the  female  insects  cover  themselves  with  a  scaly  coat- 
ing which  protects  them.  The  time  to  spray  for  scale 
is  evidently  when  a  new  brood  hatches. 

Fumigation.  A  method  of  killing  insects  that  is  more 
certain  than  spraying  is  fumigation.  This  consists  in 
producing  a  poisonous  gas  (usually  cyanide  gas)  under 
a  tree  and  letting  it  rise  among  the  branches.  To  keep 
the  gas  from  escaping,  a  tent  is  placed  over  the  tree, 
and  the  gas  is  generated  under  it.  The  gas  is  held  in 
for  about  an  hour  (Fig.  152).  Cyanide  and  its  gas  are 
very  deadly.  Extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
inhaling  any  of  the  gas. 


When  to 
spray  for 
codling 
moth; 
scale 


Using 

cyanide 

gas 


Caution 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  152      A  tent  properly  adjusted  over  a  tree  that  is  to  be  fumigated. 


2OO 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Carbon 
bisulfid 


Fumigating 
the  soil 
and  clean- 
ing nursery 
stock 


Killing 

grain 

weevils 


Caution 


Predacious 
insects 


Another  fumigating  material  used  for  killing  certain 
insects  is  carbon  bisulfid.  This  is  a  liquid  which  evap- 
orates even  more  rapidly  than  gasoline.  Worms  that 
burrow  in  the  ground  and  attack  the  roots  can  be  de- 
stroyed in  loose,  sandy  soil  by  pouring  the  carbon  bisulfid 
into  holes  made  with  sharp  sticks.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  punch  the  holes  at  safe  distances  from  the  roots  of 
plants.  The  holes  are  closed  so  that  the  gas  will  per- 
meate the  soil.  Carbon  bisulfid  is  also  used  to  fumigate 
nursery  stock  that  can  be  placed  in  an  air-tight  box  or 
room.  A  dish  containing  sufficient  liquid  to  fill  the  in- 
closed space  with  gas  is  set  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
box  or  room.  As  the  liquid  evaporates,  the  gas,  which 
is  very  heavy,  sinks  and  floods  the  inclosure. 

Beans  and  peas  and  grain  in  storehouses  are  often 
infested  with  weevils,  which  gnaw  their  way  into  the 
seed  and  eat  the  inside,  leaving  nothing  but  the  hull 
(Fig.  153).  These  weevils  are  easily  killed  in  a  store- 
house or  in  a  tight  box  by  fumigating  with  carbon  bisul- 
fid. Grain  elevators  and  mills  are  regularly  fumigated 
with  cyanide  gas.  Moths  in  a  trunk  or  tight  closet 
can  be  got  rid  of  by  fumigating  with  carbon  bisulfid. 
This  gas,  though  suffocating,  is  not  so  poisonous  as 
cyanide,  though  it  may  cause  headaches ;  and  the  liquid, 
like  gasoline,  is  dangerous  near  a  fire.  The  gas  from  it 
is  explosive. 

Natural  destroyers  of  insects.  In  spite  of  all  that  we 
can  do  to  destroy  harmful  insects,  we  still  need  the  assist- 
ance of  their  natural  enemies.  Every  form  of  animal 
life  has  its  enemies  that  hold  it  in  check,  and  the  most 
effective  enemies  of  many  harmful  insects  are  other 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


201 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  153.     Beans  that  have  been  weevil-eaten.     Weevils  are  destructive  both 
in  the  larval  and  in  the  adult  stage 

insects  that  feed  upon  them.    The  latter  are  called 
"  predacious  insects." 

The  way  in  which  insects  multiply  if.  freed  from  their  How  the 
natural  enemies  was  shown  some  years  ago  when  the  jj^En 
cottony-cushion  scale  was  introduced  from  Australia  scale  was 
into  California.  In  its  native  country  it  had  not  been  a 
very  serious  pest,  but  here  it  did  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  damage  and  threatened  to  destroy  entirely  the  citrus 
trees  and  a  number  of  other  kinds  of  trees.  Search  was 
made  for  an  insect  that  would  destroy  this  pest,  and  in 
Australia  was  found  a  beetle  known  as  the  "  Australian 
ladybird,"  which  devoured  the  cottony-cushion  scale 
in  that  country  (Figs.  154,  155,  156,  and  157).  A  few 
of  these  ladybird  beetles  were  brought  to  America  and 


202 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Ladybird 
beetles 


Spiders 


Parasitic 
insects 


How 

some  of 
them  work 


turned  loose  in  the  orchards.  They  multiplied  rapidly, 
and  soon  the  ravages  of  the  cottony-cushion  scale  were 
checked.  Now  if  that  pest  is  seen  to  be  increasing  in 
any  locality,  ladybird  beetles  are  brought  from  the 
state  insectary  (where  beneficial  insects  are  reared 
for  the  public),  and  they  quickly  control  the  pest. 

There  are  known  to  be  two  thousand  kinds  (species) 
of  ladybird  beetles,  most  of  which,  both  as  larvae  and 
adults,  live  on  other  insects  (are  carnivorous)  and  are 
helpful  to  men.  Only  two  of  the  kinds  that  are  known 
in  the  United  States,  the  squash  ladybird  and  the  bean 
ladybird,  are  plant  eaters  (herbivorous)  and  therefore 
pests.  Plant  lice,  which  do  so  much  damage,  form  the 
chief  diet  of  one  ladybug.  Thousands  of  pounds  of 
these  insects  are  annually  collected  in  the  mountains 
where  they  breed  and  are  sent  to  districts  in  which 
they  are  needed  for  the  control  of  plant  lice. 

Spiders  are  of  very  great  service  in  holding  insects 
in  check.  Strictly  speaking,  the  spiders  should  not 
be  classed  as  insects :  a  true  insect  has  three  pairs  of 
legs ;  a  spider  has  four. 

There  is  another  class  of  insects  called  "  parasites," 
many  of  which  destroy  pests,  not  by  devouring  them, 
but  by  attacking  them  from  within.  The  insect  at- 
tacked is  known  as  the  "  host."  Most  commonly  a 
parasite  lays  its  eggs  in  the  body  of  an  insect,  piercing 
the  skin  with  a  sharp  egg-laying  device  called  an  "  ovi- 
positor." Then,  when  the  eggs  hatch,  the  grubs  (larvae) 
feed  upon  the  body  of  the  host,  killing  it.  Sometimes 
a  small  insect  parasite  pierces  the  eggs  of  a  larger  insect 
with  its  ovipositor  and  lays  its  own  tiny  eggs  within. 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


203 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIGS.  154  to  157.  A  biting  insect:  the  Australian  ladybird  beetle  at  different 
stages  (much  enlarged).  Fig.  154,  larvae  (lower  left  corner);  Fig.  155,  pupa 
(upper  left  corner) ;  Fig.  156,  adult  (upper  center) ;  Fig.  157,  larvae  and  adults 
attacking  cottony-cushion  scale  (right). 

Of  course  the  larger  eggs  never  hatch,  but  instead  furnish 
food  for  the  tiny  grubs  which  develop  within  them. 
Most  parasites  attack  caterpillars  or  other  larvae,  rather  The  fate  of 
than  eggs  or  adult  insects  (Fig.  158).  Often  a  cater- 
pillar that  is  attacked  does  not  die  in  the  larval  stage, 
but  succeeds  in  forming  a  chrysalis.  The  butterfly, 
however,  never  emerges,  but  a  whole  swarm  of  some  very 
different  insect  comes  forth. 


many  cater* 
pillars 


204 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


External 
parasites 


The 

Texas-fever 

lick 


W.  T.  Shilling 
FiG.  158.  A  parasitic  insect  laid  its  eggs 
within  the  body  of  this  caterpillar.  When 
the  eggs  hatched,  the  grubs  bored  their 
,way  through  the  skin  of  the  caterpillar 
and  formed  pupae. 


Insect  parasites  on  the 
larger  animals.  There 
are  many  parasites  that 
infest  larger  animals  in- 
stead of  living  upon 
other  insects.  Some  of 
these  live  within  the 
host,  but  others  stay  on 
the  skin  and  suck  the 
blood  of  the  host.  Ex- 
amples of  the  latter  are 
the  tick,  the  flea,  the 
louse,  and  the  mosquito. 

External  parasites  are 
not  only  very  annoying 
to  animals,  but  some  of 
them  do  an  immense 
amount  of  damage.  The 
Texas-fever  tick,  found 
upon  cattle  in  Mexico 
and  along  the  southern 
border  of  the  United 
States,  causes  a  fever 
from  which  many  cattle 


die.  To  free  the  cattle  from  it,  they  are  dipped  in  a 
poisonous  solution  contained  in  a  large  tank  through 
which  the  cattle  are  driven  (Fig.  159).  To  prevent 
Mexican  cattle  from  bringing  the  insect  across  the 
line  into  California,  our  government  has  built  a 
barbed-wire  fence  along  the  border  between  the 
two  countries,  beginning  at  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


205 


The  scab 
mile  in 
sheep 


extending  about  a  hun- 
dred miles  inland  to  the 
desert  (Fig.  160). 

Sheep  as  well  as  cattle 
suffer  from  parasites, 
the  one  most  harmful 
to  sheep  being  a  very 
small  mite  that  pro- 
duces a  disease  called 
"  scab."  Thousands  of 
sheep  lose  their  wool 
before  shearing  time  on 
account  of  scab.  Dip- 
ping in  a  tank  of  to- 
bacco extract  and  sulfur 
(or  lime-sulfur)  is  the 
remedy  for  this  trouble. 

One  of  the  pests  that 
causes  a  great  deal  of 
trouble  for  stockmen  is 
the  fly  that  lays  its  eggs 

in  the  open  sores  of  animals,  causing  screw  worms.  All 
kinds  of  animals  should  be  carefully  watched,  and  any 
hurts  should  be  covered  with  tar  to  keep  flies  away. 
If  maggots  get  into  a  sore,  they  can  be  killed  with 
chloroform. 

The  flea  sometimes  becomes  a  source  of  danger  to  Carriers  of 
mankind.     It  is  the  carrier  of  an  Asiatic  disease  called 
11  bubonic  plague."     Fleas  that  have  bitten  a  person  hav- 
ing this  disease  are  capable  of  giving  it  not  only  to  another 
person,  but  to  rats.      Since  the  fleas  may  pass  from 


17.  *.!>.*.     The 

FIG.  159.     A  dipping  .tank  made  of  con-    screw  worm 
crete.     Here  sheep  are  being  dipped  to  kill 
the  mite  that  causes  scab. 


dlsease 


206  Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Louis  Harvey 

FIG.  160.    Building  a  fence  along  the  border  to  keep  out  Mexican  cattle,  which 
»  are  often  infected  with  fever  ticks. 

rats  to  men,  human  beings  are  in  danger  wherever  there 
are  any  infected  rats  (Fig.  161).  A  few  years  ago  the 
city  of  San  Francisco  spent  many  thousands  of  dollars 
in  destroying  rats  among  which  the  plague  had  spread. 
Mosquitoes  The  mosquito  may  be  regarded  as  a  parasite,  for  it 
malaria  secures  its  living  in  part,  at  least,  by  sucking  the  blood 
of  animals,  while  the  juices  of  plants  also  furnish  it  with 
food.  The  male  mosquito  has  not  a  beak  strong  enough 
to  pierce  the  skin  of  an  animal,  and  he  must  rely  upon 
plants  for  all  his  food.  Many  kinds  of  mosquitoes  are 
quite  harmless,  except  that  they  take  a  drop  of  our 
blood  now  and  then.  But  one  kind  was  the  carrier  of 
yellow  fever  until  that  disease  and  the  mosquito  that 
kept  it  going  were  practically  stamped  out  together. 
Another  kind,  the  Anopheles,  is  the  carrier  of  malaria. 
If  an  Anopheles  mosquito  bites  a  person  suffering  from 
malaria,  it  draws  the  disease  germs  into  its  own  body. 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


207 


These  germs  develop  in  the  mosquito  and  are  thrust 
into  the  blood  of  every  person  that  the  mosquito  may 
thereafter  bite. 

There  are  two  ways  to  prevent  the  spread  of  malaria :  Destroying 
one  by  screening  to  keep  the  mosquitoes  from  biting  r  osqui 
persons  and  so  carrying  the  disease;  the  other  by  de- 
stroying the  mosquitoes.  Draining  swamps  and  pools 
deprives  mosquitoes  of  their  breeding  places,  and  cover- 
ing all  stagnant  water  with  kerosene  kills  the  larvae  that 
may  already  be  in  the  water.  The  "  wigglers  "  cannot 
breathe  if  there  is  a  film  of  oil  over  the  water.  Mosqui- 
toes do  not  fly  very  far ;  consequently,  if  every  one  would 
see  to  it  that  no  stagnant  water  was  allowed  to  stand  in 
his  neighborhood,  or  that  water  that  could  not  be  drained 
was  covered  with  oil,  malaria  would  not  be  so  common. 


Elmer  S.  Green 


FIG.  161.  A  rat  catcher  at  work  in  Colombo.  The  governments  of  Ceylon 
and  India  carry  on  a  ceaseless  campaign  of  destruction  against  rats,  and  they 
find  that  it  pays. 


208 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Army 
worms 


Checking 

their 

progress 


Cutworms 


Remedies 


Tent  cater- 
pillars 


Plant-eating  insects.  Army  worms  are  the  larvae  of 
a  night-flying  moth.  They  are  sometimes  very  de- 
structive, and,  again,  for  many  years  it  may  be  difficult 
to  find  any  trace  of  them.  There  are  seasons  when  they 
travel  in  great  numbers  from  one  field  to  another,  devour- 
ing the  crops  as  they  go.  It  is  possible  sometimes  to 
protect  a  field  against  them  by  plowing  a  deep  furrow 
around  it.  If  the  sides  are  steep  and  the  dirt  loose  and 
crumbly,  the  worms  after  crawling  into  it  cannot  well 
get  out. 

When  army  worms  are  not  numerous,  they  are  some- 
times spoken  of  as  "  cutworms."  But  the  real  cutworm 
is  the  larva  of  a  different  moth.  Cutworms  feed  only 
at  night  and  hide  in  the  ground  during  the  day.  There 
are  two  ways  of  trapping  them  in  a  garden.  One  is  to 
lay  leafy  boughs  around  in  the  garden  so  that  the  worms 
will  crawl  under  these  for  shelter.  The  other  way  is 
to  punch  holes  in  the  ground  with  a  hoe  handle.  In 
the  morning  several  worms  may  be  found  in  each  hole. 
Arsenate  of  lead  sprayed  upon  the  leaves  is  a  good  pro- 
tection against  cutworms.  They  can  also  be  killed  by 
a  poisoned  bait,  made  of  a  pound  of  Paris  green  mixed 
with  forty  pounds  of  bran.  This  is  sweetened  with 
molasses,  and  enough  water  is  added  to  make  a  stiff 
mass.  Birds  can  be  prevented  from  getting  this  poison 
by  putting  it  under  boards,  which  are  held  up  from 
the  ground  far  enough  for  the  worms  to  crawl  under. 

A  most  interesting  as  well  as  destructive  insect  is  the 
tent  caterpillar.  It  is  especially  harmful  to  the  apple 
tree,  but  it  also  attacks  the  cherry,  plum,  peach,  and 
several  other  trees.  It  feeds  upon  the  leaf,  each  cater- 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


209 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  162.  Egg  masses  of  the  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar.  Twigs  bearing  them 
are  easily  distinguished  in  winter,  and  they  should  then  be  clipped  off  and 
burned. 


pillar  eating  one  or  two  leaves  daily.  The  peculiar  and  How  they 
interesting  thing  about  these  caterpillars  is  that  instead 
of  living  independently  of  one  another  they  live  in  col- 
onies, as  ants  and  bees  do.  To  shelter  the  colony,  they 
build  a  tent  which  resembles  a  spider's  web  among  the 
branches.  The  mother  moth  lays  a  cluster  of  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  eggs  on  a  twig  (Fig.  162).  The 
larvae  hatched  from  such  a  cluster  remain  together  as  a 
colony  and  build  the  silky  tent  into  which  they  go  for 
protection  (Fig.  163). 

Like  other  biting  insects  tent  caterpillars  can  be  killed  Remedies 
by  spraying  the  trees  with  arsenical  poison.     But  two 
other  methods  are  used :   one  is  to  destroy  the  colonies 


210 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Two 

imported 

pests 


in  their  webs,  and  the 
other  is  to  search  for 
the  egg  masses  in 
winter  when  the  trees 
are  bare.  The  pupils 
of  one  school  in  Massa- 
chusetts undertook  the 
work  of  protecting  the 
apple  trees  in  the 
neighborhood.  They 
went  through  the  or- 
chards in  winter  time 
and  picked  off  the 
twigs  on  which  there 
were  egg  masses.  This 
saved  the  fruit  of  the 
following  summer. 

The  gypsy  moth  and 
the  brown-tail  moth 
may  be  spoken  of  to- 
gether, for  they  are 
similar  in  some  re- 
spects. Both  were  in- 
troduced into  the  New 
England  States  from 
Europe  and  both  de- 
stroy the  foliage  of  fruit  and  forest  trees.  A  naturalist 
brought  the  gypsy  moth  from  France.  Some  of  them 
escaped  from  him,  and  within  twenty  years  they  had 
so  multiplied  that  they  were  killing  all  the  trees  in 
localities  where  they  were  especially  numerous.  Some- 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  163.  Nest  and  larvae  of  apple-tree  tent 
caterpillar  in  fork  of  wild  cherry.  There  are 
a  number  of  kinds  of  tent  caterpillars,  but 
this  one  is  the  commonest  and  the  most  de- 
structive. 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies  211 

thing  like  a  million  dollars  is  spent  annually  in  an 
effort  to  destroy  them,  or  at  least  to  keep  them  from 
spreading. 

Many  peach  trees  throughout  the  whole  country  are  The  peach- 
killed  by  a  larva  that  bores  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  and  the  crown  of  the  roots.  It  works  in  the  grow- 
ing wood  just  under  the  bark.  To  prevent  the  wasplike 
mother  moth  from  laying  her*  eggs  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  tree,  the  trunk  can  be  wrapped  with  heavy  paper  . 
and  the  roots  banked  up  with  earth  during  the  egg- 
laying  season.  Or,  better  than  banking  with  earth, 
a  coating  of  "  Grade  D  "  asphaltum  may  be  melted 
and  applied  to  the  trunk  from  a  point  five  or  six  inches 
below  the  ground  to  the  same  distance  above  the 
ground.  The  covering  may  not  prevent  all  worms 
from  entering  the  tree.  Those  that  succeed  in  boring 
into  the  bark  must  be  dug  out  with  a  knife. 

A  very  destructive  insect  known  as  the  "  cotton-boll  The  cotton- 
weevil "  came  across  the  Rio  Grande  from  Mexico  into 
Texas  about  1890,  and  each  year  since  that  time  it  has 
spread  over  a  larger  area. 
Its  only  food  is  the  cotton 
plant.     It   works   mostly 
in  the  unopened  blossoms 
or  "  squares"  ;  but  during 
the    latter    part    of    the 
season,  when  blossoms  are 
scarce,   it   works  also  in 
young  bolls.    Two  meth- 
ods  of   control  are  early  u' s' D'  A'  Methods 

...  FIG.  164.     The  cotton-boll  weevil.         of  control 

planting,  and  burning  the  Larva  and  adult  at  work. 


\ 
212 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Mollusks 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  165.    A  common  garden  slug.     Several  troublesome  kinds  of  slugs  have 
been  brought  to  this  country  from  Europe. 

stalks  in  the  fall.  If  the  cotton  stalks  are  burned 
by  the  middle  of  October,  a  very  large  percentage 
of  the  eggs,  larvae,  and  full-grown  weevils  will  be  de- 
stroyed. Plowing  the  stalks  under  serves  the  purpose 
about  as  well,  and  this  is  better  for  the  soil,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  do  when  the  cotton  is  large.  The  earlier 
cotton  can  be  brought  to  maturity  the  safer  it  is,  for 
the  boll  weevils  increase  in  number  as  the  season  ad- 
vances (Fig.  164). 

Snails  and  slugs  (Fig.  165),  though  not  insects,  eat 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies  213 

plants  much  as  the  biting  insects  do,  and  they  can  be 
killed  with  a  poison  spray.  Plants  may  also  be  protected 
from  them  by  a  line  of  powdered  lime  such  as  is  used  to 
mark  a  tennis  court;  they  cannot  go  through  it.  Salt 
sprinkled  on  a  slug  will  cause  it  to  shrivel  and  die  almost 
instantly. 

Though  the  earthworm  resembles  the  larvae  of  some  The  earth- 
insects,  it  is  a  very  different  creature.     Like  some  of  worm 
the  insects,  it  is  an  ally  of  the  farmer.     It  improves 
the  soil.     The  scientist  Darwin  calls  it  "  the  great  plow-  How  it  im- 


man  of  the  world."     In  making  its  way  through  the  ps^es  ihe 

soil,  it  swallows  earth,  which  it  ejects  at  the  surface. 

The  passageways  that  it  makes  allow  air  to  enter  the 

soil   more   freely  and   aid   drainage.     The  earthworm 

lives  partly  on  organic  matter  that  is  mixed  with  the 

earth  that  it  swallows.     At  night  it  comes  to  the  sur- 

face and  feeds  on  very  small  fragments  of  leaves  and 

stems.     It  finds  these  near  the  mouth  of  its  burrow, 

in  which  it  keeps  its  tail  anchored  while  feeding.     If  it 

left  its  burrow  completely,  it  might  never  find  its  way 

back,  for  it  is  unable  to  see. 

Honey  bees.     One  of   the  insects  most  worthy  of  The  ways 
study,  both  oh  account  of  its  interesting  habits  and  its  °fbees 
usefulness  to  man,  is  the  honey  bee.     If  people  realized 
how  simple  a  thing  it  is  to  care  for  bees  and  how  profit- 
able they  are,  the  family  beehive  might  become  as  com- 
mon as  the  family  cow.     But  bees  are  important  not  only 
as  producers   of    honey;    as   carriers   of    pollen   they 
cause  the  fertilization  of  many  flowers,  and  some  plants 
depend  on  them  alone  for  this  service. 

To  study  the  habits  of  bees  an  "  observation  hive,  " 


214 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


How  bees 
multiply 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  166.    Studying  bees  at  school.    When  swarming  takes  place,  the  new 
colonies  are  disposed  of  to  pupils. 

made  with  glass  sides,  is  very  convenient  (Fig.  166). 
The  long-bodied  queen  may  be  seen  within  a  circle  of 
workers,  their  heads  all  turned  toward  her.  The  tiny 
white  eggs  which  she  lays  may  be  seen  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cells  in  the  comb.  In  three  days  these  hatch  into 
tiny  white  larvae,  which  are  carefully  fed  by  the  "  nurse 
bees."  The  larvae  grow  so  fast  that  in  five  or  six  days 
each  of  them  nearly  fills  his  cell,  which  is  then  sealed  over 
by  the  bees.  Without  receiving  anything  further  from 
the  bees  in  the  hive  except  warmth,  the  young,  now 
called  pupae  (singular,  "pupa"),  change  into  fully 
developed  bees.  This  takes  twelve  or  thirteen  days 
more.  Each  new  bee  now  eats  the  capping  from  its 
cell  and  emerges,  to  begin  doing  its  part  in  the  work  of 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


215 


the  colony.  The  whole  time  required  for  the  develop- 
ment from  egg  to  adult  is  twenty-one  days  for  a  worker, 
twenty-four  days  for  a  drone  (male  bee) ,  and  but  sixteen 
days  for  a  queen  (Fig.  167). 

Within  the  hive  there  are  many  different  duties  to  be   The  work 
performed.     Nurse  bees   must   care  for  the  larvae.     In  ^oh 
hot  weather  some  of  the  bees  fan  with  their  wings  for 
ventilation.     If  it  is  cold  the  bees  all  cluster  in  a  com- 
pact ball  in  one  part  of  the  hive,  and  by  vigorous  muscular 
exercise  of  legs,  wings,  and  abdomens,  keep  themselves 
warm.   They  are  thus  able  to  raise  the  temperature  within 
the  hive  many  degrees  above  that  of  the  outside  air. 

Honey  is  made  from  the  nectar  of  flowers,  which  is  Materials 
taken  into  the  "  honey  stomach  "  and  rapidly  changed 
from  nectar  to  honey  during  the  homeward  flight.  Wax 
for  the  comb  exudes  from  the  body  of  the  bee  while 
it  stands  at  rest  in  the  hive,  somewhat  as  perspiration 
exudes  from  one's  skin,  or  saliva  from  the  glands  of  the 
mouth.  The  cement,  called  "  propolis,"  with  which 
the  bee  seals  up  cracks  in  the  hive,  is  gum  gathered 
mostly  from  the  buds  of  trees. 


that  bees 
use 


A.  I.  Root  Co 

FIG.  167.     A  drone,  a  queen,  and  a  worker  bee  (left  to  right). 


2l6 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Bee 

keeping 


The  hive 


How  to  get 

straight 

comb 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FiG.  1 68.     His  first  hive.     One  such  colony  should  yield  enough  honey  for  the 
family,  and  the  boy,  if  a  Scout,  can  earn  a  merit  badge  in  learning  to  care  for  it. 

Making  a  start  with  bees  is  as  simple  a  matter  as 
making  a  start  with  poultry  (Fig.  168).  A  hive  is  no 
more  expensive  than  a  chicken  coop,  and  a  colony  of 
bees  to  put  into  it  may  be  purchased  from  a  dealer  in 
bee  materials  if  not  from  a  bee  keeper  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. A  hive  may  very  easily  be  made  at  home.  The 
inside  dimensions  of  one  of  the  standard  hives  are  :  width, 
13!  inches;  length,  iSi  inches;  and  depth,  10  inches. 
The  dimensions  should  in  any  case  be  such  that  the  hive 
will  fit  the  pound  frames  which  are  purchased  from  a 
dealer  in  supplies. 

In  order  to  induce  the  bees  to  build  a  separate  comb 
in  each  of  the  nine  or  ten  frames  placed  in  a  hive,  it  is 
necessary  to  put  some  starter  in  each  frame.  The 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies 


217 


"starter"  or  "  founda- 
tion "  is  made  of  bees- 
wax that  has  been 
stamped  out  into  sheets 
about  as  thick  as  paper. 
A  sheet  is  fastened  in 
each  frame  where  the 
comb  is  to  go,  and  the 
bees  build  upon  it. 
Without  foundation  the 
combs  may  run  in  any 
direction  in  the  hive 
and  the  frames  cannot 
be  lifted  out  separately. 

After  the  bees  have 
filled  the  hive  with  comb 
and  honey  and  "brood" 
(young  bees),  a  second 

story,  called  a  "  super,"  is  added,  and  in  this  the  bees  will  The  sur- 
store  their  surplus  honey.     The  queen,  which  lays  all  the  p  l 
eggs,  seldom  goes  up  into  the  super ;  so  it  is  likely  to 
contain  honey  only,  and  no  brood.     It  is  from  the  super 
that  the  beekeeper  gets  his  share  of  the  honey,  but  he 
should  leave  a  sufficient  amount,  about  fifteen  pounds 
all  together,  for  the  bees  to  live  on  during  the  winter 
(Fig.  170). 

In  the  spring  bees  are  apt  to  swarm.     That  is,  the  Swarming 
colony  divides,  one  part  remaining  in  the  hive  with  a 
newly  hatched  queen,  and  the  rest,  accompanied  by  the 
old  queen,  flying  out  to  find  a  new  home.     The  swarm 
usually  alights  in  some  tree  or  bush  that  is  near  and 


W.  T.  Sktlltng 

FIG.  169.  A  wire-gauze  bee  veil  gives 
perfect  protection.  A  cloth  veil  may 
touch  the  face  and  allow  bees  to  sting 
through  it. 


2l8 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Capturing 
a  swarm 


How  to 
keep  safe 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  170.  A  young  beekeeper.  He  is  wearing  a  wire-gauze  veil  and  long  gloves. 
The  frame  that  he  holds  above  the  hive  contains  sealed  brood  and  honey.  On  the 
hive  hangs  a  smoker,  and  just  to  the  right  is  a  super  filled  with  pound  frames. 
On  top  of  the  super  is  a  chisel  for  prying  frames  apart,  and  beside  the  chisel 
stands  a  pound  frame,  in  the  top  half  of  which  a  strip  of  foundation  has  been  put 
in  place.  At  the  extreme  right  is  a  super  to  hold  the  two  large  frames  leaning 
against  it.  One  of  these  frames  shows  foundation  all  the  way  across;  the  other 
shows  foundation  only  halfway  across. 

clusters.  Here  the  bees  remain  for  a  day  or  two  while  a 
few,  acting  as  scouts,  go  out  in  search  of  a  permanent 
home.  When  a  suitable  place  is  found,  perhaps  in  a 
hollow  tree  or  an  unused  chimney,  the  swarm  follows 
the  scouts  to  it,  and  housekeeping  is  again  set  up.  While 
the  bees  are  resting  in  a  cluster,  it  is  an  easy  matter 
to  capture  the  swarm.  One  needs  only  to  put  an  empty 
hive  close  up  under  the  cluster  and  shake  the  bees  into  it. 
They  generally  are  content  in  the  hive,  especially  if  it 
contains  some  honeycomb. 

The  bee's  sting  has  made  it  unpopular,  but  the  sting 
is  seldom  used  unless  the  hive  is  opened  or  disturbed  in 
some  way.  Opening  the  hive  and  handling  the  bees 


Insect  Enemies  and  Allies  219 

can  be  made  perfectly  safe  by  wearing  a  veil  and  a  pair 
of  canvas  gloves  with  -an  extension  to  reach  halfway 
up  the  arms,  as  shown  in  Figure  170.  An  elastic  band 
placed  above  the  top  of  each  glove  keeps  the  bees  out. 

Most  of  the  bees  in  this  country  are  either  the  wild  Races  of 
black  bees  or   the   golden-banded   Italian  bees.      The 
latter  are  considered  by  far  the  better,  as  they  are  less 
liable  to  become  diseased  and  &re  also  gentler  than  the 
black  bees. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Collect  eggs,  larvae,  pupae,  and  adults  of  as  many  insects 
as  you  can.     Watch  the  changes  from  one  form  to  another.     Feed 
insects  with  the  leaves  on  which  they  are  found. 

2.  Make  an  emulsion  of  kerosene  and  soap  and  water.     Spray 
it  or  wash  it  upon  plants  infested  with  scale  insects  or  plant  lice. 

3.  Using  a  hand  lens,  or  a  better  microscope,  examine  small 
insects  and  insect  eggs. 

4.  Note  all  the  differences   you  can  between  an  earthworm 
and  the  larvae  of  some  insect.     Watch  the  earthworm  crawl. 

References 

"The  Gypsy  Moth  and  the  Brown-Tail  Moth."     Farmers'  Bulletin 

845- 

"Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies  of  the  Apple."     Farmers'  Bulletin  492. 

"Information  for  Fruit  Growers  about  Insecticides,  Spraying  Ap- 
paratus, and  Important  Insect  Pests."  Farmers'  Bulletin  908. 

"How  to  Detect  Outbreaks  of  Insects  and  Save  the  Grain  Crops." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  835. 

"Army  Worms."     Farmers'  Bulletin  731. 

"Cutworms."     Farmers'  Bulletin  739. 

"How  Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts."     Farmers'  Bulletin 

155- 

"How  to  Prevent  Typhoid  Fever."     Farmers'  Bulletin  478. 
"Bees."    Farmers'  Bulletin  447. 


CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 

THE  FARMER'S  FEATHERED  HELPERS 

Think  of  your  woods  and  orchards  without  birds  .  .  . 

They  are  the  winged  wardens  of  your  farms, 
Who  from  the  cornfields  drive  the  insidious  foe, 

And  from  your  harvests  keep  a  hundred  harms. 

HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW 

WILD  birds  are  often  annoying  to  the  farmer,  and 
he  is  sometimes  tempted  to  think  of  them  as  his  enemies 
and  to  treat  them  as  such  without  stopping  to  inquire 
whether  or  not  the  good  they  do  him  may  not  be  far 
greater  than  the  harm.  Our  human  friends  often  annoy 
us,  but  we  do  not  want  to  do  without  them.  Even  the 
crow  which  pulls  up  newly  planted  corn  in  spring  will 
later  destroy  numberless  grubs,  cutworms,  and  field 
mice,  thus  protecting  the  crop  from  its  enemies.  It  is 
troublesome  for  perhaps  a  month  at  planting  time,  but 
during  the  other  eleven  months  it  does  much  to  redeem 
its  character. 

Beneficial  We  cannot  say  of  any  bird  that  it  is  altogether  harmful 
ful  birdT'  or  altogether  beneficial.  We  can  only  put  into  one 
class  birds  that  are  more  beneficial  than  harmful  and 
into  another  class  those  that  do  more  harm  than  good. 
The  first  class,  which  may  be  called  beneficial,  contains 
nearly  all  our  common  birds.  Few  birds  should  be 
classed  as  enemies. 

The  useful  birds.  The  government  has  a  department 
called  the  "  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  "  which  makes 
a  business  of  finding  out  the  habits  of  birds  and  animals. 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers  221 


Flriley  and  Bohlman 

FIG.  171.     A  black-throated  gray  warbler  feeding  its  young.     Small  birds 
rear  their  young  almost  entirely  on  insect  food. 

The  investigations  of  this  bureau  have  thrown  much 
light  upon  the  problem  of  the  value  of  birds.  Around 
the  nest  of  a  pair  of  barn  owls  was  found  nearly  a  bushel 
of  the  remains  of  pocket  gophers,  which  are  so  destructive 
to  the  roots  of  trees  and  field  crops  in  some  parts  of  the 
country.  In  another  barn-owl  retreat  were  found  three 
thousand  skulls  of  rats,  mice,  gophers,  and  other  small 
animals  (Fig.  172).  The  stomach  of  a  Swainson's  hawk 
contained  a  hundred  grasshoppers,  and  as  birds  digest 
their  food  very  quickly  these  must  all  have  been  eaten 

within  a  few  hours.     The  lawmakers  of  Pennsylvania  The  value 

,         ,         ,  J ,       ,        ,       e   of  owls  and 

once,  in  ignorance,  placed  a  bounty  on  the  heads  of  hawks 

hawks  and  owls  (Figs.  173  and  174).  In  a  year  and  a  half, 
on  account  of  the  increase  of  field  mice  and  other  pests, 
it  was  estimated  that  the  state  had  suffered  a  loss  of 
four  million  dollars.  The  laws  now  protect  these  birds 
of  prey,  for  it  has  been  discovered  that,  although  they 
may  occasionally  catch  a  chicken  or  a  song  bird,  their 
food  in  the  main  consists  of  animal  pests. 


222 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Insect 
eaters 


Destroyers 
of  weed 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  172.     A  young  barn  owl  (also  called  monkey-faced  owl).     Remains  of 
gophers,  mice,  a  young  rabbit,  and  a  kangaroo  rat  were  found  about  its  nest. 

A  killdeer's  stomach  was  found  to  contain  three  hun- 
dred mosquito  larvae.  A  flicker  had  eaten  twenty-eight 
white  grubs.  A  nighthawk's  appetite  had  called  for 
three  hundred  and  forty  grasshoppers,  fifty-two  bugs, 
three  beetles,  two  wasps,  and  a  spider.  Two  pine  sis- 
kins whose  crops  were  examined  had  been  content  with 
no  less  than  three  hundred  plant  lice  and  nineteen  hun- 
dred black  scale  insects. 

Not  only  do  the  insect-eating  birds  and  the  birds  of 
prey  that  destroy  small  animals  benefit  the  farmer,  but 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers  223 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  173.  Hawks:  goshawk;  red-tailed  hawk;  sharp-shinned  hawk;  marsh 
hawk  (left  to  right).  The  goshawk,  the  sharp-shinned  hawk,  and  the  Cooper's 
hawk  (Fig.  183)  are  among  the  very  few  birds  that  probably  do  more  harm  than 
good. 


W.  T.  Milling 

FIG.  174.  Owls:  adults  and  young  of  barn  owl  (on  the  same  branch);  short- 
eared  owl  (at  lower  left  of  picture) ;  long-eared  owl  and  great  horned  owl  (at 
right).  In  the  tray  are  preserved  the  contents  of  the  stomach  of  the  barn  owl 
mounted  at  the  top  of  the  branch. 


224 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


San  Diego  Society  Nat.  Hist. 

FIG.  175.    A  pocket  gopher;  a  destructive  burrowing  animal  that  is  held 
in  check  by  owls. 

the  birds  that  live  on  seeds  help  him  to  keep  his  farm 
free  from  weeds.  The  crop  of  a  pheasant  was  found  to 
contain  eight  thousand  chickweed  seeds  and  a  dandelion 
head.  The  sparrows  (Fig.  177),  of  which  there  are  so 
many  kinds,  are  especially  useful  in  destroying  weed 
seeds.  These  little  birds  may  often  be  seen  clinging  to 
a  tall  weed,  picking  at  the  ripening  seeds.  It  has  been 

estimated  that  each 
sparrow  eats  as  much 
as  a  fourth  of  an 
ounce  of  seed  a  day, 
and  that  in  one  year 
all  of  the  sparrows  in 
a  state  like  Iowa  must 
eat  about  eight  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five 

Son  Diego  Society  Nat.  Hist,    tons     of      Seed      which 

FIG.  176^  Head,  tail  (under  side),  and  foot  of  might  Otherwise  make 
gnatcatcher ;  a  good  example  of  an  insect-eating 

bird.  a  troublesome  crop  of 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers 


225 


fc  San  Diego  Society  Nat.  Hist. 

FIG.  177.    Head  of  intermediate  sparrow  (left),  and  head  of  its  young. 
This  is  a  typical  seed-eating  bird.     Notice  the  thick  bill. 


weeds.  The  English  sparrow,  however,  is  so  destructive 
to  grain  fields  that  it  is  considered  unfortunate  that  it 
was  ever  introduced  into  this  country. 

It  is  thought  by  some  scientists  that  it  would  be  im-  insects 
possible     to     raise 

crops  without  the  .<  birds 

help  of  birds  that 
destroy  harmful  in- 
sects. Most  birds 
eat  insects,  and 
even  those  that 
care  least  for  them 
often  feed  them  to 
their  young,  for 
young  birds  require 
food  of  this  kind. 
From  daylight  till 
dark  the  parent 

birds     are     On     the  San  Diego  Society  Nat.  Hist. 

alert       tO       Capture    ^IG'  x^*     Head    anc^    f°ot   °f   nighthawk.     The 
mouth  is  adapted  to  catching  insects  on  the  wing. 
WOrmS     and     bugs.     The  foot  is  poorly  adapted  to  perching. 


226 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 

FIG.  179.  A  red-winged  blackbird  (male).  It  feeds  mostly  on  weed  seeds 
and  harmful  insects.  With  the  draining  of  the  marshes  in  which  it  breeds, 
this  bird  is  becoming  less  common. 


One  pair  of  wrens  are  reported  to  have  taken  more  than 
six  hundred  insects  to  their  young  in  a  day,  and  a  pair  of 
grosbeaks  fed  eight  hundred  insects  to  their  growing 
family  within  eleven  hours.  The  robin  often  brings 
condemnation  upon  itself  by  destroying  fruit  in  the 
orchard ;  but  by  devouring  insects,  especially  when 
nesting,  it  does  very  much  to  make  up  for  any  loss  it 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers 


227 


HELP  VILD  LIFE 

TO  DO  ITS  BIT 


BIRDS  MAKE  AGRICULTURE  POSSIBLE 

By  Killing  Insect  and  Rodent  Pests,  They  Save 
Crops  Worth  Millions  of  Dollars 

FISH  AND  GAKTURNISH  FOOD 

THOUSANDS  OF  TONS  ARE  TAKEN  ANNUALLY 

Conservation  Laws  are  designed  to  make  Fish,  Game 

and  Birds  more  abundant  and  are  vitally  necessary 

for  National  Welfare 

THE  MAN  WHO  ILLEGALLY  TAKES  GAME  OR  FISH  OR 

KILLS  BIRDS   DECREASES  FOOD  RESOURCES  AND 

DEFRAUDS  HIS  COUNTRY 

REPORT  VIOLATIONS  TO  THE  NEAREST  GAME  PROTECTOR 
CONSERVATION    COMMISSION.  ALBANY 


FIG.  1 80.     Copies  of  this  poster  were  displayed  throughout  New  York  by 
order  of  the  State  Conservation  Commission. 

causes.      A  single  young  robin  ate  one  hundred  and  The  keen 
sixty-five  cutworms  in  a  day  —  nearly  twice  its  own  JJj^;.^ 
weight  of  them.     Another  ate  from  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  worms  daily  for  fifteen  days.     The  enormous  appe- 
tite of  birds  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  they 


228 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


W.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  181.    Acorns  stored  by  a  woodpecker  in  holes  drilled  in   dead  wood. 
Only  one  species  does  this  —  the  California  woodpecker. 


To  every 
bird  its 
work 


have  great  power  of  digestion,  disposing  of  a  meal  in 
about  half  the  time  that  is  required  by  other  animals. 
It  is  because  of  their  voracious  appetites  that  birds  are 
able  to  free  our  orchards,  gardens,  and  fields  from 
insect  pests  (Fig.  180). 

There  is  such  a  variety  of  birds,  each  kind  finding  its 
food  in  a  little  different  way,  that  much  more  good  is 
accomplished  than  could  be  done  by  one  kind,  however 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers  229 

numerous.     The  swallows,  swifts,  and  nighthawks  (Fig.  Birds  that 
178)  are  particularly  well  fitted  to  capture  insects  flying  *&f^/"on 
in  the  open  air.     Their  quick  motion,   rapid,   darting  tree  trunks; 
flight,  and  wide,  gaping  mouth  give  them  success  in  the  branches 
the   air.     The   woodpecker,   with   his   chisel-like   beak, 
powerful  neck  muscles,  grasping  claws  for  holding  to 
the  bark  of  a  tree,  and  stiff  tail  feathers,  which  help  to 
brace  him  in  position  for  work,  is  well  equipped  for 
destroying   the  boring  insect  foes   of   trees  (Fig.  181). 
The  little  wren  creeps  about  in  hidden  holes  and  crevices 
where  insects  would  be  overlooked  by  other  birds.     The 
brown  creeper  (Fig.   182),  scrambling '  over  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees,  can  see  and  capture   tiny  in- 
sects and  eggs  that  would  not  be  noticed  by  a  less 
careful  and  observing  bird.     The  oriole  works  among 
the   branches  of  trees,  the  meadow  lark  works  on  the 


San  Diego  Society  Nat.  Htst. 


FIG.  182.     Head,  tail  (under  side),  and  foot  of  the  Western  creeper.     The 
creepers  hunt  their  food  in  places  that  other  birds  cannot  well  explore. 


230 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Bats 


Three 
hawks  of 
bad 
character 


ground,  the  owl  searches 
for  rodents  at  night,  and 
the  hawk  catches  similar 
prey  in  daylight. 

Bats,  of  course,  are 
not  to  be  classed  with 
birds;  but  it  is  well  to 
keep  in  mind  that  these 
curious  little  animals 
are  very  useful  as  de- 
stroyers of  night-flying 
insects,  which  consti- 
tute the  food  of  most 
of  them. 

We  have  considered 
the  value  of  birds  in  an 
economic  way :  they 
help  to  save  our  crops 
and  so  have  an  actual 
money  value  to  us. 

But,  aside  from  this,  the  world  would  be  a  much  duller 
place  to  live  in  if  it  were  not  for  the  song  and  the  color 
and  the  interesting  ways  of  birds. 

Harmful  birds.  Although  birds  have  to  their  credit 
so  much  of  good,  still  there  are  some  few  which  do  so  much 
more  harm  than  good  that  they  must  be  classed  as  harm- 
ful. Among  these  are  three  members  of  the  hawk 
family,  the  Cooper's  hawk  (Fig.  183),  the  sharp-shinned 
hawk,  and  the  goshawk.  These  are  so  destructive  to 
other  birds  and  to  young  chickens  that  the  laws  do  not 
protect  them.  The  English  sparrow,  as  mentioned 


FIG.  183. 


San  Diego  Society  Nat.  Hist. 
A  Cooper's  hawk  and  its  prey. 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers  231 

before,  is  a  decided  nuisance. 
The  blue  jay,  also,  is  a  bird 
with  few  friends,  on  account 
of  his  destructive,  thieving 
habits.  The  eggs  and  young 
of  other  birds  are  not  safe  in 
his  presence. 

Protection  of  birds.  Birds 
often  have  to  go  far  for  water, 
which  they  require  more  fre- 
quently than  do  many  animals. 
They  delight  in  a  shallow  pool 
or  a  dish  of  water  (Fig.  184) 
where  they  may  bathe  and 


The 

English 
sparrow 
and  the 
blue  jay 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  184.  A  bird  bath  made  of 
concrete.  Such  a  bath  is  much 
safer  for  birds  than  is  one  that  is 
placed  on  the  ground  within  reach 
of  cats. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIGS.  185  and  186.  A  sheet  of  metal  fas- 
tened about  a  tree  in  either  of  the  ways 
shown  makes  an  effective  guard  against  the 
climbing  enemies  of  birds.  Ready-made 
wire  guards  also  are  effective.  No  device 
of  this  kind  should  be  fastened  in  such  a 
way  as  to  restrict  the  growth  of  the  tree. 


drink.  We  can  do  a 
great  deal  to  benefit 
these  creatures  that  help 
us  so  much,  by  placing 
water  where  they  can 
reach  it  conveniently 
and  with  safety — espe- 
cially from  cats  (Figs. 
185  and  186). 

Birds    need    protec-  Extermina- 
tion.     Several  species  of  %££ 
American    birds    have  pigeon 
already  been  completely 
destroyed   by   man,   so 
that  no  living  specimen 


232 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Two 
enemies 
of  birds 


Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 

FiG.  187.  A  group  of  mounted  specimens  of  the  passenger  pigeon. 
No  birds  of  this  species,  which  was  distinctively  American,  remain 
alive. 

can  ever  again  be  seen.  The  best-known  case  of  this 
kind  is  that  of  the  passenger  pigeon.  Within  the 
memory  of  living  men,  it  is  said,  passenger  pigeons 
traveled  in  flocks  that  darkened  the  sun.  With  no 
protection  of  the  law,  they  were  recklessly  slaughtered 
for  the  markets.  The  last  specimen  died  in  the  Cin- 
cinnati Zoological  Garden  in  1914,  where  it  had  been 
kept  for  twenty-nine  years. 

We  can  save  the  lives  of  very  many  birds  by  never 
allowing  a  nest  to  be  robbed,  by  disposing  of  unnecessary 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers 


233 


cats,  and  by  properly  feeding  cats  which  are  kept,  so 
that  they  will  not  be  tempted  by  hunger  to  prey  upon 
birds.  Snakes  as  well  as  cats  often  kill  birds  for  food. 
On  the  other  hand,  snakes  do  a  great  deal  of  good  by 
killing  field  mice  and  other  small  animals  harmful  to 
crops.  (Most  of  the  snakes  of  the  United  States  are 
not  only  harmless  but  beneficial;  but  the  rattlesnake, 
the  copperhead,  and  the  water  moccasin  should  be 
killed  because  they  are  poisonous.) 

Bird  houses,  if  properly  constructed,  will  be  put  to  good  Bird 
use ;  but  they  will  be  especially  appreciated  by  the  kinds 
of  birds  that  like  to  nest  in  hollow  trees,  because  not 
so  many  trees  of  that  kind  are  left  standing  as  formerly. 
The  Farmers'  Bulletin  referred  to  at  the  end  of  this  chap- 
ter gives  sketches  and  detailed  drawings  of  many  kinds 
of  bird  houses  to  suit  the  needs  of  different  varieties. 


W.  T.  SkiUing 

FlG.  188.     In  doing  something  to  encourage  birds,  these  pupils  have  found 
pleasure  for  themselves. 


234 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


A  house  that  one  bird 
would  like  might  not  be 
entered  by  another  (Fig. 
188). 

The  best  way  to  ob- 
serve birds  is  to  go 
where  they  like  to  stay 
and  keep  very  quiet  so 
that  they  will  come  near. 
Opera  glasses  will  be 
found  very  useful  in  bird 
study.  The  writings  of 
such  men  as  Thoreau ; 
Fabre,  the  great  French 
student  of  insect  life; 
G.  ciyde  Fisher  and  John  Burroughs,  are 
of  the  first  importance 
as  aids  to  nature  study, 
and  they  make  pleasant  reading. 


FIG.  189.    John  Burroughs,  friend  of  birds 
He  is  America's  best-known  naturalist. 


Experiments  and  Observations  v 

1.  Keep  a  calendar  of  birds  of  your  locality,  giving  date  when 
each  is  first  seen  and  noting  where  it  nests. 

2.  Watch  the  birds  to  see  what  food  each  eats. 

3.  From  a  concealed  place,  watch  a  nest  of  young  birds  and 
see  how  often  the  parent  birds  bring  food  to  them. 

4.  Following  the  directions  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  609,  make 
bird  houses  suitable  for  some  of  the  birds  of  your  own  neighbor- 
hood. 

5.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  John  Burroughs,  John  James 
Audubon,  and  Henri  Fabre.        i 

6.  What  do  you  think  is  the  meaning  of  the  following  poem, 


The  Farmer's  Feathered  Helpers          235 

called  "  Stupidity  Street  "  ?     It  was  written  by  Ralph  Hodgson, 
an  English  poet. 

I  saw  with  open  eyes 
Singing  birds  sweet 
Sold  in  the  shops 
For  the  people  to  eat, 
Sold  in  the  shops  of 
Stupidity  Street. 

I  saw  in  vision 
The  worm  in  the  wheat, 
And  in  the  shops  nothing 
For  people  to  eat ; 
Nothing  for  sale  in 
Stupidity  Street. 

References 

"Fifty  Common  Birds  of  Farm  and  Orchard."  (Colored  picture  of 
each  bird.)  Farmers'  Bulletin  513.  Sold  at  fifteen  cents  by  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

"Bird  Houses  and  How  to  Make  Them."     Farmers'  Bulletin  609. 

"  Some  Common  Birds  Useful  to  the  Farmer."     Farmers'  Bulletin  630. 


CHAPTER   FIFTEEN 

THE   SMALLEST   OF  LIVING  THINGS 

The  least  of  living  things,  I  repeat,  holds  a  more  profound  mystery 
than  all  our  astronomy  and  our  geology  hold. 

JOHN  BURROUGHS 

Our  unseen  IN  the  chapter  on  insects  we  noted  that  these  little 
creatures  outnumber  by  far  all  other  members  of  the 
animal  kingdom.  But  there  are  still  other  living  things 
as  much  smaller  and  more  numerous  than  insects  as 
insects  are  smaller  and  more  numerous  than  farm  animals. 
They  are  in  the  air,  in  the  water,  and  in  the  soil  all 
about  us,  and  as  they  carry  out  their  life  processes  they 
are  constantly  doing  us  either  good  or  harm.  Among 
these  tiny  organisms  are  included  all  of  the  bacteria 
and  many  of  the  fungi. 

Bacteria.  The  most  minute  of  organisms  are  called 
"  bacteria  "  (singular,  "  bacterium  ").  Every  one  should 
know  something  about  the  bacteria,  for  the  invisible 
hosts  of  them  add  fertility  to  the  soil,  help  to  bring  about 
decay  of  all  organic  matter,  cause  vinegar  to  ferment 
and  milk  to  sour ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  they  produce 
mosj:  of  the  diseases  of  mankind,  such  as  tuberculosis, 
typhoid,  diphtheria,  and  influenza.  (The  disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria  are  commonly  called  "  germs.") 
The  Bacteria  are  so  small  that  if  four  hundred  of  some 

ojfuving       kinds  of  them  were  placed  side  by  side,  they  would  make 
things  a  line  only  as  long  as  a  single  page  of  this  book  is  thick. 

None  of  them  can  be  seen  except  with  the  aid  of  a 
powerful  compound  microscope,  and  many  of  them 
cannot  be  seen  even  with  the  best  instruments.  They 

236 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things  237 

do  not  belong  to  the  animal  kingdom  but  to  the  vegetable 

kingdom.     Each   individual   is   a   tiny   plant,    without 

roots,  leaves,  or  stem   (Fig. 

190).   Unlike  ordinary  plants,     ^/a     ^i»/  &     ^  J^     TPf/y^- 

most  bacteria  are  not  able  to 

prepare     their     supply     of 

food  from  raw  materials  in 

Soil   and   air.       None  of  them     FIG-    190.       Bacteria    of    different 

,  shapes;    some   are   spherical,   some 

are    able    to    Convert    Carbon    are  rodlike,  and  some  are  spiral. 

from  the  air  into  plant  food, 

though  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  are  able  to  use 
nitrogen  from  the  air  in  manufacturing  their  supply  of 
protein.  Practically  all  of  the  bacteria  must  have  for 
food  some  plant  or  animal  matter. 

For  the  most  part,  bacteria  increase  in  the  simplest  How  they 
and  speediest  manner  by  constantly  dividing  (Fig.  191).   ^^ber  " 
A  single  bacterium,  which  may  be  in  the  shape  of  a 
ball  or  a  rod,  grows  smaller  and  smaller  at  one  point 
until  the  parts  separate  and  each  becomes  a  new  in- 
dividual.    Bacteria   may   double   their   numbers   every 
half  hour  if  conditions  are  favorable.     But  supposing 
that  divisions  into  two  took  place  every  hour,  a  single 
germ  would  in  twenty-four  hours  increase  to  the  enormous 
number  of  16,777,216,  as  can  very  easily  be  figured. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  bacteria  cannot  go  on  Why  they 
indefinitely,  for  it  is  limited  by  the  supply  of  food  within  multiply 
their  reach,  and  also  by  substances  that  they  themselves  without 
produce,  which,  in  large  enough  quantities,  are  poisonous 
to  them.     An  example  of  this  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
vinegar,  which  is  produced  by  bacteria  that  work  in  the 
fermented  juice  of  apples  or  other  fruit.     The  bacteria 


238  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

multiply  very  rapidly  at  first,  producing  great  masses 
of  what  we  call  "  mother  of  vinegar  " ;  but  when  the 

acid  has  become  strong  it 
checks  their  increase.  Their 
numbers  are  also  reduced  by 
FIG.  191.    Diagram  showing  how  a  microscopic    animal    germs 

bacterium   multiplies   by  pinching  in    called     "  animalcules." 

These  are  much  larger  than 

bacteria,  and  they  use  many  of  the  bacteria  for  food. 
Furthermore,  the  white  corpuscles  in  the  blood  of  the 
larger  animals  destroy  many  harmful  bacteria,  and 
different  varieties  of  bacteria  destroy  each  other. 

The  work  of  Just  as  there  are  very  many  kinds  of  the  ordinary 
plants  upon  the  earth,  so  there  are  very  many  kinds  of 
bacteria,  drawing  their  food  from  different  animal  or 
vegetable  sources  and  producing  various  results.  Some 
kinds  of  bacteria  aid  in  causing  the  decay  of  materials 
that  they  feed  upon,  and  decay  is  a  most  necessary 
process  in  nature.  Without  it,  dead  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  would  not  disappear  and  become  a  part 

Decay  a  of  the  soil,  adding  to  the  fertility  of  the  land.  The 
carbon  removed  from  the  air  and  built  into  plant  sub- 
stance would  never  be  returned  to  the  air  in  the  form 
of  carbon  dioxid  gas  (Chapter  Two),  and  soon  plants 
would  be  unable  to  grow  for  want  of  it.  We  usually 
think  of  decay  as  an  unpleasant  process,  but  it  is  so 
only  while  it  is  going  on.  When  decay  is  complete, 
there  is  nothing  left  of  the  substance  decayed  but  some 
perfectly  pure  gases  which  mingle  with  the  air,  and  a 
little  mineral  matter  as  odorless  and  as  pure  as  any 
other  part  of  the  soil  (Fig.  192). 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things  239 


FIG.  192.  The  decay  of  dead  vegetable  and  animal  matter  is  caused  by  special 
kinds  of  bacteria.  If  decay  takes  place  above  ground,  much  material  that  would 
be  of  value  to  the  soil  escapes  in  the  form  of  gases.  If  decay  takes  place  in  damp 
earth,  or  under  a  layer  of  leaves  in  a  forest,  humus  is  formed. 

Decay  carried  to  completion  does  not  leave  much  Prepara- 
plant  food  in  the  soil,  but  a  partial  decay  in  the  earth 
of  such   material  as  stubble,  roots,  leaves,  and  manure  humus 
produces  humus,  upon  which  plants  are  so  dependent. 
Bacteria,   then,  aid  in  the  formation  of  humus.     But 
as  the  humus  itself  is  not  soluble  in  the  moisture  of  the 
soil,  it  cannot  be  used  by  the  plants  as  food  before  it 
has  been  changed  by  other  kinds  of  bacteria,  different 
from  those  that  caused  decay,  into  material  that  the 
roots  can  take  up. 

Knowledge    of    the    habits     of    these    soil-enriching  Soil 
...  i  i  •  bacteria; 

bacteria  is  very  necessary  to  every  one  who  cultivates  manare 

a  field,  a  garden,  an  orchard,  or  a  flower  bed.  The  first 
thing  of  importance  to  remember  is  that  the  bacteria 
must  be  able  to  find  a  supply  of  food  in  the  soil,  and 
that  nothing  answers  the  purpose  so  well  as  a  plentiful 


240 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Conditions 
thai 

encourage 
the  helpful 
bacteria  in 
the  soil 


The  bad 
effect  of 
sour  soil; 
the  remedy 


supply  of  barnyard  manure  plowed  or  spaded  into  the 
earth.  The  bacteria,  in  using  this  as  food  for  them- 
selves, convert  it  into  food  for  the  plants.  Any  mineral 
plant-food  elements,  like  potassium  and  phosphorus,  that 
are  found  in  manure  or  other  humus-forming  materials, 
are  set  free  by  the  bacteria  for  the  use  of  plants.  There 
are  many  bacteria  in  manure  before  it  is  put  on  the 
land,  and  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  using  it  is  to 
inoculate  the  soil  with  a  new  supply  of  bacteria. 

Moreover,  as  we  saw  in  Chapter  Four,  some  of  the 
bacteria  that  live  in  the  roots  of  legumes  and  others 
that  live  on  refuse  materials  in  the  soil  greatly  benefit 
crops  by  increasing  the  supply  of  nitrogen  available  for 
plants.  This  is  especially  true  in  dry-farming  regions, 
where  bacteria  penetrate  the  soil  more  deeply  than  they 
do  in  wetter  regions.  Moisture  and  air  are  both  neces- 
sary for  the  life  of  these  beneficial  bacteria.  For  their 
best  development,  the  soil  should  be  damp  enough  to 
crumble  readily  when  turned  over  with  the  spade,  but 
it  should  not  be  so  wet  that  it  can  be  molded  into 
shape  in  the  hand.  If  the  ground  is  kept  soaked  with 
water,  the  air  cannot  penetrate  among  the  soil  grains 
as  it  should  and  so  be  available  to  the  bacteria.  Air- 
ing the  soil  by  frequent  cultivation  is  one  of  the  most 
important  means  of  stimulating  the  activity  of  bacteria. 
Killing  weeds  is  not  the  only  purpose  in  hoeing  a  garden 
or  plowing  a  field. 

Sourness  of  the  soil  will  kill  most  kinds  of  beneficial 
bacteria.  A  stiff  soil  that  is  poorly  drained  is  the  most 
liable  to  become  sour,  and  the  best  remedy  for  sourness, 
aside  from  improving  the  drainage,  is  to  treat  the  soil 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things  241 

with  a  good  dressing  of  lime.  The  lime  neutralizes  or 
sweetens  the  acid  much  as  soda  sweetens  sour  milk  in 
the  making  of  biscuits.  The  lime,  besides  encouraging 
the  action  of  bacteria,  has  several  other  important  uses 
in  the  soil  that  have  already  been  considered  in  Chapter 
Twelve. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  every  few  years,  to  put  in  a  crop  of  Legumes 
leguminous  plants  (page  45)  such  as  clover  or  beans  to 
rotate  with  the  usual  crops.  The  nitrogen-gathering 
bacteria  that  live  in  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of  the 
legumes  will  add  to  the  store  of  plant-food  material  in 
the  soil. 

Milk,  being  a  suitable  food  for  many  kinds  of  bacteria,  Bacteria 
seldom  contains  fewer  of  them  than  several  hundred  thou-  ^^ 
sand  to  a  teaspoonful.  These  bacteria  are  usually  per- 
fectly harmless,  most  of  them  being  of  a  variety  that 
merely  causes  milk  to  sour.  The  reason  milk  does  not 
sour  when  it  is  kept  cold  is  that  the  bacteria  that  change 
the  milk  sugar  into  acid  are  not  active  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture. It  is  often  noticed,  however,  that  if  it  is  a  little 
too  cool  for  milk  to  sour  it  develops  a  bad  odor  and 
taste.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  bacteria  that 
bring  about  decay  can  work  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  those  can  that  cause  the  souring ;  so  milk  should 
never  be  kept  long  unless  at  a  very  low  temperature. 

Most  of  the  bacteria  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  Bacteria 
are  harmless  to  us  because  they  live  only  upon  dead  ^are 
animal  and  vegetable  matter ;  but  there  is  a  much  smaller  enemies 
number  that  are  capable  of  using  living  substance  to 
feed  upon  and  so  of  causing  disease  in  animals  and  in 
plants.     One  kind  when  it  develops  in  the  lungs  causes 


242 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Flies  as 
carriers 
of  germs 


Fungi  and 

bacteria 

compared 


consumption,  another  kind  multiplying  in  the  throat 
produces  diphtheria,  and  still  another  variety  whose 
natural  home  is  in  the  digestive  organs  is  the  cause  of 
typhoid  fever.  Disease  germs  are  often  carried  on  the 
feet  of  flies  from  filth  upon  which  the  flies  have  rested, 
to  food  upon  the  table,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  prin- 
cipally that  flies  should  be  exterminated  (page  183). 

Fungi.  Fungi  are  plants  that  lack  chlorophyll,  and 
therefore,  like  most  bacteria,  they  are  dependent  on  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  matter  for  food.  As  with  bacteria  also, 
there  are  beneficial  and  harmful  forms  of  fungi.  Some  of 
them  aid  in  the  process  of  decay  or  cause  mold.  Others 
grow  upon  the  bodies  of  insects  such  as  chinch  bugs,  grass- 
hoppers, and  flies,  causing  the  death  of  untold  numbers 
of  these  pests.  The  yeast  that  is  so  important  in  bread- 
making  is  a  fungus,  and  it  is  different  varieties  of  fungi 
that  give  the  distinctive  flavors  to  various  kinds  of 
cheese.  Though  many  fungi  are  so  small  that  we  need 

the  aid  of  a  microscope  to 
study  them,  others,  as  the 
mushrooms  and  puff  balls,  grow 
to  considerable  size.  We  have 
seen  that  bacteria  are  tiny 


FIG.  193.  Bread  mold,  showing  the  rootlike  parts  that  absorb  food  from  the 
material  on  which  the  mold  grows,  the  filaments  by  which  the  mold  spreads,  and 
upright  filaments  on  which  spores  have  formed. 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things 


243 


W.  T.  Skllllng 

FIG.  194.     Smuts  of  corn  and  barley.    The  two  heads  of  barley  to  the  right 
have  been  blackened  by  smut. 

specks ;    but    fungi   often   form    a   network   of   webby 
material. 

The  life  histories  of  fungi  are  generally  more  complex  The  life 
than  those  of  bacteria.  Mold  is  a  fungous  plant,  but  afungu$ 
unlike  ordinary  plants,  it  does  not  grow  from  a  seed. 
It  comes  from  a  spore,  which  is  much  smaller  than  the 
smallest  seed.  Spores  are  very  light  and  float  about 
in  the  air.  Wrien  one  falls  upon  bread  or  cheese  or 
anything  that  will  furnish  it  with  nourishment,  it  grows 
into  a  mold  plant.  First  a  white  thread  grows  out  from 
the  spore ;  then  this  thread  branches  until  it  has  formed 
a  network  of  threads  so  fine  that  they  are  difficult  to  see 
without  a  microscope.  This  mold  plant  does  not 
blossom,  but  clusters  of  spores  form  on  the  ends  of  the 
threads  (Fig.  193).  The  spores  are  often  blue  or  green, 


244 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Fungous 
diseases 
of  plants; 
the  damage 
they  cause 
to  crops 


Insecticides 
and  fungi- 
cides 


giving  the  mold  its  peculiar  color.  Unlike  bacteria,  the 
fungi  do  not  reproduce  by  means  of  division.  However, 
some  bacteria  at  times  reproduce  by  means  of  spores. 

Most  diseases  of  plants  are  caused  by  fungi,  while 
most  diseases  of  animals  are  caused  by  bacteria.  Mildew, 
so  often  seen  as  a  white  powdery  substance  on  the  leaves 
of  roses,  is  a  fungus.  The  black  smuts  of  corn,  wheat, 
and  other  grains  are  fungi  (Figs.  194,  195,  and  196). 
Rust,  which  sometimes  is  so  plentiful  on  grain  that  it 
rubs  off  as  a  brown  powder,  is  also  a  fungus.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  the  yearly  crops  of  the  United  States 
would  be  worth  five  hundred  million  dollars  more  than 
they  are  if  it  were  not  for  the  fungous  diseases  of  plants. 
A  large  part  of  this  loss  could  be  avoided,  for  many  of 
these  diseases  are  preventable.  The  chemicals  used  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  fungus  are  called  "  fungicides," 
as  sprays  used  to  kill  insects  are  called  "  insecticides." 


FIG.  195.    The  effect  of  smut  of  oats  on  grains. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things 


245 


U.  S.  D.  A. 
FIG.  196.    Two  kinds  of  smut  of  oats;  the  effect  on  heads. 

("  Cide  "  is  from  the  Latin,  and,  when  attached  to  the 
end  of  a  word,  it  means  "  killer.") 

Insects  and  fungi  are  so  different  that  what  will  kill 
one  may  not  do  the  other  any  harm  at  all.  However, 
to  make  one  spraying  do  double  duty,  a  fungicide  and 
insecticide  are  often  mixed,  and  both  being  applied  at 
once,  insects  and  fungi  are  destroyed  together. 

The  oldest  and  most  generally  used  of  the  fungicides  Bordeaux 
is  Bordeaux  mixture.     Its  value  was  discovered  by  a  mixiare 
vineyardist  near   Bordeaux,  France,  who   sprayed   his 


246 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


.  T.  Shilling 


FlG.  197.     Preparing  Bordeaux  mixture.     This  method  of  mixing  the  chemicals 
causes  them  to  unite  properly. 


grapes  with  a  mixture  of  bluestone  and  lime  to  discourage 
passers-by  from  stealing  them.  It  was  noticed  that  the 
grapes  so  sprayed  yielded  much  better  than  those  not 
sprayed.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  usually  made  with  a 
strength  of  "  five-five-fifty " ;  that  is,  five  pounds  of 
bluestone,  five  pounds  of  lime,  and  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
To  make  one  tenth  this  amount,  dissolve  half  a  pound 
of  bluestone  and  half  a  pound  of  quicklime  separately 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things  247 


FIG.  198.     Spraying  a  peach  tree  for  curl  leaf.     This  should  be  done  before 
the  buds  open  in  spring. 


in  two  buckets,  each  containing  two  and  a  half  gallons 
of  water  (Fig.  197).  (The  bluestone  will  dissolve  more 
readily  if  it  is  placed  in  a  cloth  bag  that  is  suspended  in 
the  water.  It  should  be  dissolved  in  a  wooden  bucket.) 
Pour  the  two  solutions  together,  both  at  once,  into  a  third 
wooden  vessel.  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  the  mixture 
to  make  it  serve  as  an  insecticide  as  well  as  a  fungicide. 
The  mixture  should  be  used  while  fresh. 


248 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Lime 
sulfur 


Formalin 
and 

bichlorid 
of  mercury 


Various 
fungous 
diseases; 
peach 
blight  and 
curl  leaf 


A  spray  that  is  very  commonly  coming  to  be  used  in- 
stead of  Bordeaux  mixture  is  lime  sulfur.  On  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  making  this  in  small  quantities,  it  is 
usually  purchased  ready  mixed.  Lime  sulfur  is  an 
insecticide  as  well  as  a  fungicide.  It  is  useful  for  killing 
scale  insects. 

Two  very  important  fungicides,  which  are  used  to 
disinfect  seed  to  be  planted,  are  formalin  and  bichlorid 
of  mercury.  Formalin,  a  liquid,  is  mixed  with  water 
at  the  rate  of  one  pint  to  thirty  gallons  of  water. 
Bichlorid  of  mercury  is  most  conveniently  used  in 
the  form  of  tablets  as  sold  by  druggists.  These 

tablets  differ  in  size,  but 
enough  of  them  should 
be  dissolved  in  water  to 
make  a  one-to-one-thou- 
sand solution.  Direc- 
tions on  the  bottle  will 
explain  how  to  do  this. 
Bichlorid  of  mercury  is 
extremely  poisonous  and 
should  be  handled  only 
with  the  greatest  care. 

Peach  blight  is  a  fun- 
gous disease  that  kills 
the  peach  buds  during 
winter,  so  that  few  leaves 

W.T.  Stilling  f°rm  5     ^    "  CUrl    ^  " 

FIG.  199.     Curl  leaf  of  peach.     If  the  tree  makes     the     leaves     CUrl 

from  which  this  twig  was  broken  had  been  and  drop  off .    For  blight 
sprayed    with    Bordeaux    mixture,    these 

leaves  would  be  sound.  Spray      With      Bordeaux 


The  Smallest  of  Living  Things  249 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  200.  Disinfecting  seed  wheat  for  smut.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimates  that  $35,000,000  worth  of  cereals  could  be  saved 
annually  by  disinfecting  seed. 

mixture  early  in  December ;  for  curl  leaf,  spray  just 
before  the  buds  open  in  spring  (Fig.  199). 

Scab  of  apple  and  pear  are  caused  by  fungi.     Spray  Scab  on 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  about  three  times  during  early  ^rmt 
spring. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  potato  blight,  "  early  "  and  Potato 
"  late,"  and  these  are  caused  by  two  different  fungi.  a^d  lcab 
For  both  kinds  of  blight,  spray  once  in  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  with  Bordeaux  mixture.     Potato  scab  is  a  fungous 
growth  that  roughens  the  skin  of  the  potato.     Soak 
seed  potatoes  for  two  hours  in  formalin,  one  pint  to 
thirty  gallons,  or  in  bichlorid  of  mercury  with  a  strength 
of  one  to  one  thousand. 


250 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Damping 
off 


Mildew 


Smuts 


A  fungus  often  attacks  the  stems  of  young  seedlings 
in  the  nursery,  making  them  rot  off  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground ;  such  rotting  is  known  as  "  damping  off." 
The  danger  from  this  fungus  is  lessened  by  keeping  the 
ground  as  dry  on  the  surface  as  possible.  Bordeaux 
mixture  may  be  used  as  a  spray. 

For  mildew,  a  good  remedy  is  flowers  of  sulfur.  It 
should  be  dusted  on  the  plants  when  the  dew  is  on, 
so  that  it  will  stick.  Repeat  the  dusting  every  ten  days 
if  necessary. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  smut  of  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley,  but  most  of  them  can  be  prevented  by  soaking 
the  sack  of  seed  grain  for  ten  minutes  in  a  barrel  of 
formalin,  one  pint  to  thirty  gallons  of  water,  or  by 
sprinkling  the  grain  with  formalin  as  shown  in  Figure 
200.  Smut  of  corn  cannot  be  prevented  by  disinfect- 
ing the  seed.  Gather  and  burn  all  stalks  that  have 
smut  on  them,  before  the  spores  ripen  and  are  scattered 
by  the  wind. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Heat  the  same  dish  of  milk  to  boiling  every  day  for  several 
weeks.     The  bacteria  are  killed  and  the  milk  remains  good. 

2.  Find  as  many  different  samples  as  you  can  of  mold,  mildew, 
plant  rust,  and  smut.     Examine  them  with  a  hand  lens  or  micro- 
scope. 

3.  Make  and  use  Bordeaux  mixture,  following  directions  that 
have  been  given. 

4.  Disinfect  seed  potatoes  with  formalin. 

References 

"Cultivation  of  Mushrooms."  Farmers'  Bulletin  204. 
"Some  Facts  about  Malaria."  Farmers'  Bulletin  450. 
"How  to  Prevent  Typhoid  Fever."  Farmers'  Bulletin  478. 


CHAPTER   SIXTEEN 

THE   HERD   AND   THE   DAIRY 

Then  at  the  dairy's  cool  retreat, 
The  busy  maids  together  meet ; 

The  careful  mistress  sees 
Some  tend  with  skillful  hand  the  churns, 
While  the  thick  cream  to  butter  turns, 

And  some  the  curdling  cheese. 

-  JANE  TAYLOR 

"  PROBABLY  there  is  no  other  farm  animal  in  which  The  value 
boys  and  girls  are  so  vitally  interested  as  the  dairy 
cow.  Their  health,  happiness,  and  often  life  itself  de- 
pend upon  intelligent  care  of  this  useful  animal."1 
Scientists  have  shown  that  a  plentiful  supply  of  milk  is  Danger 
necessary  to  the  health  and  especially  to  the  growth  of 
children.  They  have  also  proved  that  milk  from  un- 
healthy cows  or  milk  improperly  handled  may  cause 
disease.  In  the  past  few  years  great  improvements 
have  been  made  both  in  the  quality  of  dairy  cattle  and 
in  the  methods  of  caring  for  milk  and  milk  products. 

Breeds  of  cattle.     All  of  our  domestic  cattle  originated  Origin  of 
in  Europe.     The  Holstein-Friesians  (or  Holsteins)  came  paiPda^y~ 
from  Holland ;  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  came  from  islands  breeds 
in  the  English  Channel ;    and  Ayrshires  from  Scotland. 
These  are  called  dairy  breeds  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  beef  breeds,  which  give  very  little  milk  but  make  a 
great  deal  more  and  better  beef  when  dressed. 

The  Herefords  or  "white-faced  cattle,"  which  were  Beef  breeds 
developed    in    Herefordshire,    England,    are    a    good 
example   of    a    beef  breed.    All   the  beef   breeds   are 

1  Arthur  D.  Cromwell/  A gricidture  and  Life. 
251 


252 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Differences 
in  richness 
of  milk 


Butter  fat 


Holstein- 

Friesians 

compared 

with 

Jerseys 


squarely  built  as  compared  with  the  more  slender  dairy 
cattle.  Their  food  is  used  in  putting  on  flesh  rather 
than  in  making  milk.  They  give  only  about  enough 
milk  to  support  their  calves.  Dairy  cows  with  their 
calves  could  not  be  allowed  to  run  loose  for  months  at 
a  time  on  the  Western  ranges  as  beef  cattle  do  without 
being  milked,  for  their  calves  could  not  take  all  the 
milk,  and  the  cows  would  suffer.  Some  dairy  cows  must 
be  milked  three  times  a  day. 

Dairy  cows  do  not  all  give  milk  of  the  same  quality. 
Jerseys  give  much  richer  milk  than  Holsteins.  By 
"  richness  "  is  meant  the  amount  of  butter  fat  which 
the  milk  contains.  By  setting  two  bottles  of  milk  side 
by  side  and  allowing  them  to  stand  for  one  or  two  days, 
it  is  easy  to  see  which  has  the  more  cream.  This  is 
only  a  rough  test,  however,  for  different  samples  of 
cream  may  have  different  amounts  of  milk  mixed  with 
them.  Cream  may  contain  anywhere  from  ten  to  sixty 
per  cent  of  pure  "  butter  fat."  Tests  have  shown  that 
the  amount  of  butter  fat  in  milk  from  different  .cows 
may  vary  from  about  three  to  six  per  cent;  that  is, 
some  cows  give  milk  twice  as  rich  as  others  do. 

The  Holstein-Friesians  unquestionably  produce  milk 
in  larger  quantities  than  do  cattle  of  any -other  breed 
(Fig.  201).  As  compared  with  the  Jerseys,  the  quantity 
of  milk  they  give  is  almost  double,  but  in  richness  it 
falls  far  short  of  Jersey  milk.  Average  Jersey  milk  is 
about  four  and  a  half  or  five  per  cent  butter  fat,  whereas 
that  of  a  Holstein  cow  averages  about  three  and  a  half 
per  cent.  As  butter  producers  they  rank  fully  as  well 
as  Jerseys,  however,  because  the  larger  quantity  of  milk 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


253 


Owen  Duffy,  Napa,  Calif. 

FIG.  201.  A  Holstein  cow  that  gave  30,641  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  or  an 
average  of  more  than  10  gallons  a  day.  She  is  registered  under  the  name 
"Raphaella  Johanna  Aagie,  Third."  This  cow  holds  the  world's  highest 
record  for  a  strictly  official  test. 

which  they  give  is  rather  more  than  sufficient  to  make 
up  for  the  lack  of  richness.  The  butter  fat,  being  in 
finer  globules,  does  not  rise  so  rapidly  as  in  Jersey  milk, 
and  so  the  milk  does  not  appear  as  rich  as  it  really  is. 
(Exp.  i.) 

These  Dutch  cattle  are  very  easily  distinguished  from  Color  and 
all  others  by  their  black  and  white  color.     They  are  s 
large,  weighing  fully  one  half  more  than  the  average 
Jersey  and  therefore  requiring  more  feed.     The  name  of  Name 
the  breed  is  derived  from  Friesland  in  Holland,  their 
original  home,  and  Holstein,  a  province  in  Germany,  to 
which  many  of  these  cows  had  been  taken  before  they 
were  brought  to  America. 

Jerseys  are  well  known  to  all  because  of  their  small 


254 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


FIG.  202.     A  cow  of  the  Dutch  Belted  breed,  similar  to  the  Holstein, 
but  peculiarly  marked. 


Origin 
of  the 
Jerseys 


Their 
record 


Guernseys 


size  and  usually  fawnlike  color.  This  breed  originated 
on  the  island  of  Jersey  in  the  English  Channel  a  few 
miles  from  the  coast  of  France.  For  hundreds  of  years 
the  people  of  this  little  island,  which  is  but  from  four 
to  seven  miles  wide  and  twelve  miles  long,  have  care- 
fully bred  these  cattle  with  a  view  to  increasing  their 
butter-producing  capacity.  Jerseys  give  a  fair  quan- 
tity of  milk,  and  it  is  exceptionally  rich  in  butter  fat. 
Some  cows  of  this  breed  have  a  record  of  having  pro- 
duced as .  much  as  four  or  even  five  pounds  of  butter 
a  day. 

Guernsey  cattle,  like  the  Jerseys,  come  from  one  of 
the  Channel  Islands.     They  are  similar  to  Jerseys  but 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


255 


Gordon  H.  True,  Univ.  of  Calif. 

FIG.  203.    The  champion  Jersey  cow  of  California.     She  produced  940.7  pounds 
of  butter  fat  in  one  year. 

are  somewhat  larger  (Fig.  204).  They  did  not  attract 
much  attention  in  this  country  until  the  time  of  the 
World's  Fair  in  Chicago,  when  tests  of  various  breeds 
showed  the  public  that  the  Guernseys  are  fine  butter 
producers.  A  peculiarity  of  the  cream  from  the  milk 
of  Guernseys  is  that  it  is  so  yellow  that  no  artificial 
coloring  is  necessary  for  the  butter.  The  cows  are  less 
nervous  and  more  gentle  than  Jerseys. 

In  order  to  keep   the  Jersey  and   Guernsey  breeds  How  these 
pure,  the  people  of  the  Channel  Islands  have  for  more  keptpure 
than  a  hundred  years  had  laws  forbidding  the  bringing 
in  of  other  cattle  except  for  immediate  use  as  beef. 

The  Ayrshires    (Fig.    205)    are   Scottish   cattle,    and  Ayrshires 
having  been  bred  in  the  highlands  where  feed  is  difficult 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


FIG.  204.    This  prize-winning  Guernsey  (5  years  old)  produced  702  pounds  of 
batter  fat  in  one  year. 

to  obtain,  they  are  a  very  hardy  breed.    They  are  better 
able  to  get  a  living  under  adverse  conditions  than  are 
any  other  dairy  cattle  kept  in  this  country.    In  their 
native  home  their  mflk  is  much  used  in  making  cheese. 
A  breed  Shorthorn  or  Durham  cattle  originated  in  England 

fa^  and  were  brought  here  in  colonial  times.  They 
America,  have  been  more  numerous  and  more  useful  in  this 
country  than  any  other  breed.  Some  breeders  have 
selected  good  mflk  producers  and  developed  rnilk 
Different  "strains,"  while  others  have  chosen  the  heavier  in- 
dividuals of  the  breed  and  developed  beef  strains. 
Breeds  of  afl  animals  are  very  likely  after  many  years 
to  become  divided  into  several  groups  or  strains,  each 
different  in  some  respects  from  other  strains  of  the  same 
breed. 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairv 


257 


It  is  a  little  difficult  to  distinguish  shorthorn  cattle  Gofer*  of 
by  their  color,  for  some  are  red.  some  white,  and  some 
red  and  white;  but  many  of  them  are  roans  (covered 
with  a  mixture  of  red  and  white  hairs),  and  these  can 
easily  be  told,  as  cattle  of  no  other  breed  have  this 
color. 

Most  farmers  and  dairymen  nowadays  realize  the  BaOding 
importance  of  keeping  a  good  breed  of  cattle,  but  too 
few  realize  the  equal  importance  of  selecting  the  best 
individuals  of  any  breed.  It  is  useless  to  keep  a  cow 
that  does  not  make  a  profit  —  a  so-called  "  boarder." 
Good  dairy  qualities  are  inherited,  and  the  farmer  who 
breeds  from  high  producers  not  only  improves  his  own 


258 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  rate  of 
improve- 
ment 
possible 


How  to 
select  a 
good  cow; 
the  udder 


Circulation 


herd,  but  finds  a  very 
profitable  market  for 
any  surplus  stock  he 
may  have. 

If  a  dairyman  has 
scrub  stock,  it  is  very 
important  that  he 
breed  up  his  herd  by 
always  keeping  a  pure- 
bred male.  The  first 
generation  of  calves 
will  be  at  least  one 
half  pure;  the  second 
generation  three 
fourths ;  the  third, 
seven  eighths  ;  and  the 
fifth,  fifteen  sixteenths 
pure.  In  this  way 
even  the  wild  Texas 
cattle,  descendants  of 
animals  brought  to  the 

Southwest  by  the  Spaniards,  have  gradually  been  trans- 
formed into  the  gentler  and  more  valuable  crossbred 
Shorthorns  or  Herefords. 

The  production  of  milk.  In  judging  the  value  of  a 
milk  cow  we  naturally  examine  first  the  udder,  where 
the  milk  is  secreted.  This  should  be  large  but  not  fleshy, 
and  it  should  extend  well  forward  and  also  well  up  behind. 
Another  sign  of  a  good  milker  is  a  large  milk  vein 
(Fig.  207).  This  vein  runs  like  a  rope  along  the  under 
side  of  the  cow's  body,  carrying  blood  from  the  udder 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  206.  Dairy  scale  and  sheet  for  keeping 
a  daily  record  of  the  milk  produced  by  every 
cow  in  a  herd.  Such  a  record  will  enable 
the  farmer  to  tell  just  how  profitable  it  may 
be  to  keep  each  cow. 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


259 


Morris  &  Sons,  Woodland,  Calif. 

FIG.  207.  The  first  cow  to  give  more  than  30,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 
Her  record  for  one  year  was  30,451  pounds.  Notice  the  large  veins  on  the 
udder,  and  the  milk  vein  in  front  of  the  udder.  Registered  name,  "Tilly 
Alcartra"  (Holstein). 

back  to  the  heart.  The  larger  it  is  the  better  the  cir- 
culation of  blood  through  the  udder,  and,  therefore,  the 
more  milk  can  be  secreted.  A  cow  must  be  able  to  eat  Digestion 
large  quantities  of  food  in  order  to  make  a  large  quantity 
of  milk.  Hence  she  must  have  a  large  stomach  "and  a 
big,  strong-looking  mouth. 

Much  can  be  told  by  the  form  of  the  cow.  Her  head 
and  neck  should  be  more  delicately  shaped  than  those  of 
a  beef  cow.  Her  shoulders  should  be  rather  sharp 
and  wedge  shaped  and  her  hips  prominent,  showing  that 
her  feed  does  not  naturally  go  to  producing  flesh. 
Finally,  she  should  be  vigorous  and  healthy.  This 
is  indicated  by  her  sleek  coat,  bright  eyes,  width  and 
depth  of  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  region  where  the 


The  dairy 
build 


260 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Telling  the 
age  of  a 
cow 


Dehorning 
cattle 


Preventing 
the  growth 
of  horns 


Disease  in 
cows 


heart  and  lungs  are  located,  and  by  large,  flaring  nos- 
trils, which  are  an  excellent  indication  of  lung  capacity. 

The  ability  to  tell  the  age  of  a  cow  is  of  importance, 
for  a  young  cow  is  worth  much  more  than  one  ten  or 
twelve  years  of  age,  whose  usefulness  is  about  at  an  end. 
During  the  first  two  years  of  a  cow's  life  her  horns  grow 
rapidly  and  are  smooth.  Then,  after  a  period  of  rest, 
a  little  more  growth  takes  place,  but  at  the  point  where 
growth  had  ceased  before  a  ring  is  formed  on  the  horn. 
Each  year  a  ring  is  thus  formed,  and  by  adding  two  to 
the  number  of  rings,  the  approximate  age  is  found. 
In  cattle  that  have  no  horns  the  age  may  be  told  by  the 
teeth.  Farmers'  Bulletin  1066  shows  pictures  of  the 
teeth  of  cattle  at  different  ages. 

Cattle  are  less  afraid  of  each  other  and  eat  more 
quietly  together  if  they  have  no  horns.  For  this  reason 
their  horns  are  often  cut  off,  though  this  is  a  very  pain- 
ful operation.  Keeping  the  horns  of  calves  from  grow- 
ing is  much  easier  than  sawing  them  off  later,  and  it 
is  far  more  humane.  Before  the  calf  is  eight  days  old 
each  spot  where  a  horn  is  to  grow  out  should  be 
dampened  and  then  rubbed  with  the  end  of  a  stick  of 
caustic  soda  or  potash.  Scabs  will  form  and  drop  off 
and  no  horns  will  grow.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep 
the  hair  dry  so  that  the  caustic  soda  will  not  spread 
and  injure  the  calf's  head.  A  ring  of  grease  around 
each  spot  will  help  to  keep  the  caustic  from  spreading. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  disease  that  many  cattle  have,  though 
they  may  show  no  outward  signs  of  sickness.  Milk 
from  cows  having  tuberculosis  is  liable  to  cause  disease 
in  persons  that  drink  it.  Therefore  the  law  in  some 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy  261 

states  requires  that  such  milk  be  pasteurized  (heated)   Pasleuriza- 
before  it  is  sold.     Such  milk  if  pasteurized  is  harmless,  ^lik 
for  the  heat  kills  any  dangerous  germs  that  may  be  in  it. 

There  is  a  way  of  finding  out  whether  or  not  a  cow  The  tuber- 
has  tuberculosis.  A  liquid  known  as  "  tuberculin  "  is 
injected  into  the  blood  of  the  cow,  and  if  it  causes  her 
to  have  fever  for  a  few  hours  she  has  the  disease.  If 
she  is  free  from  the  disease,  no  fever  is  caused  by  the 
injection. 

In  many  places  milk  is  graded  and  priced  according  Grades  of 
to  quality.  The  highest  grade  is  known  as  "  certified 
milk."  It  often  sells  for  nearly  twice  as  much  as  milk 
of  a  lower  grade.  Other  milk  may  be  classed  as  "  Grade 
A,"  "  Grade  B,"  etc.  In  order  to  have  milk  certified, 
some  one  representing  the  health  board  must  visit  the 
dairy  frequently  and  certify  to  the  board  of  health  that 
the  milk  is  produced  in  accordance  with  their  require- 
ments. 

These  requirements  are  generally  like  the  following :  Require- 
(i)  The  cows  must  be  tuberculin  tested  and  found  free  jor 
from  disease.  (2)  The  milkers  must  be  free  from  any 
contagious  disease  and  stay  away  from  any  house  where 
there  is  contagious  disease.  (3)  Everything  must  be 
clean,  —  the  cows,  the  clothes  of  the  milkers,  the  milking 
place,  and  the  utensils.  (4)  The  milk  must  be  quickly 
cooled  after  milking  and  be  kept  at  a  low  temperature. 
(5)  A  bacterial  count  must  show  very  few  bacteria  in 
the  milk.  (6)  The  milk  must  have  a  large  percentage 
of  butter  fat. 

Whether  one  runs  a  dairy  or  keeps  a  single  family 
cow,  it  ought  to  be  his  endeavor  to  produce  milk  of  such 


262 


Nature-  S  tudy  Agriculture 


How  milk 
fit  to  be 
certified 
may  be 
produced 


Keeping 
barn,  cows, 
and  milk 
free  from 
dust 


Cleanliness 
of  the 
milker 


M'.  T.  tikUUng 

FIG.  208.     Cows  in  iron  stanchions.     The  feed  box  shown  at  the  rear  is 
supported  on  rollers  so  that  it  can  be  pushed  about  easily. 

quality  that  it  could  be  classed  as  certified  by  the  most 
particular  health  board.  In  order  to  accomplish  this, 
the  cows  should  be  known  to  be  free  from  disease,  and 
they  should  be  housed  in  clean,  well-ventilated  barns 
when  not  in  the  pasture  (Fig.  208). 

No  cleaning  should  be  done  and  no  hay  should  be 
carried  about  the  barn  for  half  an  hour  before  milking- 
time,  for  if  dust  is  settling  many  thousands  of  bacteria 
will  be  carried  by  the  dust  particles  into  the  milk.  The 
cows  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  dirty,  but  should 
be  cleaned  with  a  brush  or  curry  comb.  The  udder 
should  be  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth  just  before  milking, 
so  that  particles  of  dust  and  hairs  will  not  drop  into  the 
bucket.  A  hair  may  carry  a  great  number  of  bacteria. 

The  milker  should  be  a  person  of  cleanly  habits,  and 
his  clothing  should  be  clean.  Many  of  the  large  dairies 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


263 


disease 

fi 


require  that  white  suits  be  worn  to  insure  cleanliness. 
The  milker  should  keep  his  hands  dry  —  not  moistened 
with  milk  or  water,  which  might  drop  into  the  bucket. 
He  should  be  free  from  any  germs  of  infectious  diseases,  Avoiding 
for  such  germs  might  get  into  the  milk  and  be  carried 
to  many  people.  Out  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-five 
epidemics  of  typhoid  fever,  the  causes  of  which  were 
sought  for,  it  was  found  that^.one  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  probably  came  from  dairies. 

Cleanliness  of  cans,  buckets,  bottles,  and  other  con-  Keeping 
tainers  is  important,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  health,  but 
also  because  it  keeps  the  milk  from  souring  too  soon. 
All  vessels  should  be  rinsed  with  cold  or  slightly  warm 
water  before  the  milk  has  dried  on  them,  and  they  should 


FIG.  209.     A  sanitary  milk  house  on  a  well-kept  farm.     The  utensils  have 
been  turned  upside  down  to  drain. 


264 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


Cooling 
the  milk 


then  be  washed  in  very  hot  water  containing  sal  soda. 
A  brush  with  a  handle  is  much  better  than  a  cloth  to  rub 
them  with,  for  washing  with  a  cloth  held  in  the  hand 
does  not  permit  the  use  of  very  hot  water.  Rinsing 
should  be  done  in  clean,  hot  water,  and  then  the  vessels 
should  be  left  upside  down  to  drain  and  dry  without 
being  wiped  (Fig.  209),  for  it  is  difficult  to  keep  a  drying 
cloth  sufficiently  clean. 

One  of  the  most  important  operations  to  prevent  the 
bacteria  in  milk  from  rapidly  multiplying  (Fig.  210)  and 
souring  the  milk  is  to  cool  it  promptly  after  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow.  In  large  dairies  this  is  done  by  allowing 
the  milk  to  run  over  a  framework  of  iron  pipes  within 
which  cold  water  or  another  cooling  fluid  circulates 
(Fig.  211).  Such  a  cooler  should  be  used  only  in  a 
clean  milk  house  where  the  air  is  free  from  dust.  The 
most  convenient  and  sanitary  way  to  cool  milk  in  a 
small  dairy  is  to  set  the  cans  in  cold  water,  stirring  the 
milk  occasionally. 


75  O  Bacteria 


5  Bacteria 

FIG.  210.    The  rates  of  increase  of  bacteria  in  milk  at  different  temperatures. 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


265 


If  the  above  direc- 
tions are  carried  out, 
the  milk  is  fit  to  be 
graded  as  "  certified  "  ; 
but  if  any  precautions 
are  omitted,  it  is  then 
best  to  pasteurize  the 
milk.  This  is  done  by 
heating  it  for  twenty 
minutes  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  degrees  Fah- 
renheit, and  then  cool- 
ing it  quickly.  This 
process  is  sufficient  to 
kill  any  bacteria  that 
might  cause  disease, 
and  if  the  temperature 
does  not  go  above  one 
hundred  and  fifty  de- 


When  pas- 
teurization 
is  neces- 
sary; its 
effects 


.W.  T.  Shilling 

FIG.  211.     An  effective  milk-cooling  de- 
vice.     The  milk  from  the  tank  at  the  top 
grees    the    taste    Of    the      is  spread  over  the  cold  pipes.     From  the 

pipes  it  runs  through  the  trough  and  into 
the  can. 


milk  is  not  affected  and 
it  is  quite  as  digestible 

as  raw  milk.'  Moreover,  pasteurized  milk  will  keep 
for  a  long  time  without  souring,  and  therefore  in  cases 
where  milk  has  to  be  transported  for  long  distances 
pasteurization  is  almost  a  necessity.  (Exp.  4.)  Health 
boards  recommend  that  all  milk  be  pasteurized  unless 
it  is  produced  under  very  favorable  conditions.  Pas- 
teurization does  not  remove  dirt  from  unclean  milk,  but 
it  destroys  germs  that  might  cause  disease. 


266 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  212.     Section  of  a  wire  milk  strainer,  magnified,  showing  dirt  from  the 
udders  of  ill-kept  cows. 

Straining  A  black  sediment  of  dirt  is  sometimes  found  at  the 
bottom  of  a  pan  after  milk  has  stood  in  it  for  some  hours 
(Fig.  212).  This  shows  that  the  conditions  under  which 
the  milking  was  done  were  not  cleanly.  If  the  cow  is 
not  clean,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  dirt  from  her  hair  from 
falling  into  the  bucket,  even  if  it  is  a  milker's  bucket  with 
a  small  opening  at  the  top  (Fig.  213).  This  fine  dust 
cannot  be  separated  from  the  milk  by  straining;  but 
the  milk  should  always  be  poured  through  four  thick- 
nesses of  cheesecloth  or  some  equally  good  strainer  to 
remove  hairs  and  coarser  particles.  Cloth  will  serve 
better  than  a  wire  strainer  (Fig.  214). 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


267 


In  large  dairies  a  machine  called  a  "  clarifier  "  is  used  The 
to  free  milk  from  impurities.  In  the  clarifier  milk  is  clarifwr 
whirled  so  rapidly  that  foreign  particles  which  are 
heavier  than  milk  are  driven  to  the  outer  edge  of  the 
machine,  where  they  are  drawn  off.  The  force  that 
drives  the  heavier  particles  out  of  the  milk  is  the  same 
force  that  throws  the  mud  off  the  rim  of  a  buggy  wheel. 
It  is  called  "  centrifugal  force.  If  the  milk  were 
allowed  to  stand  long  enough,  the  dirt  particles  would 
be  separated  by  being  drawn  to  the  bottom  by  the 
force  of  gravity.  But  in  the  clarifier,  centrifugal  force 
separates  them  much  more  rapidly  than  gravity  could. 
Milk  treated  in  a  clarifier  is  not  easily  digested  and 
therefore  should  not  be  used  to  feed  small  children. 

As  we  already  know,  milk  from  some  cows  is  nearly 
twice  as  rich  as  that  from  others ;  and  since  the  greater 
part  of  the  milk  produced  throughout  the  country  is 
used  for  butter  making,  it  is  very  necessary  to  be  able 
to  determine  accurately  the  percentage  of  butter  fat 

v'!'!1!1!1 

Y,1'1'1" 

i 


4 1* 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  213.     The  open  top  permits  all  the  dirt  from  above  to  fall  into  the  bucket 
at  the  left.     The  closed  top  keeps  most  of  the  dirt  out  of  the  other  bucket. 


268 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Making  the 
test 


in  the  milk  of  each  cow. 
To  do  this,  Professor 
Babcock  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  in- 
vented an  instrument 
that  shows  how  much 
butter  fat  any  sample 
of  milk  contains  (Fig. 

215)- 

About  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  milk  is  measured 
into  one  of  the  long- 
necked  bottles  shown 
in  Figure  215,  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  strong 
sulfuric  acid  is  added. 
The  acid  destroys  the 
curdy  part  of  the  milk 
and'  so  sets  the  butter 
fat  free.  (Butter  fat 
consists  of  very  small 
drops  of  oil  that  float 
all  through  the  milk.) 

The  bottle  is  now  placed  in  one  of  the  containers  of  the 
machine,  and  the  crank  is  turned  rapidly  for  five  min- 
utes. Centrifugal  force  causes  the  containers  to  swing 
outward  till  they  are  in  a  horizontal  position.  The 
heavy  mixture  of  milk  and  acid  is  driven  to  the  bottom 
of  the  bottle,  which  is  now  on  the  outside  of  the  circle, 
and  the  oil  drops,  being  light,  come  to  the  top.  After 
this  turning,  warm  water  is  poured  into  the  bottle  till 


FIG.  214.  More  of  the  fine  particles  of 
dirt  can  be  removed  from  milk  by  using  a 
cloth  strainer  than  by  using  a  wire  strainer. 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


269 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  215.    A  small  Babcock  testing  set  :  centrifugal  machine,  supply  of  sulfuric 
acid,  beakers  for  measuring  milk  and  acid,  and  bottles  that  give  the  readings. 

it  is  filled  just  to  the  neck.  The  bottle  is  whirled  for 
two  minutes  more,  and  a  little  more  water  is  added  so 
that  the  oil  will  float  up  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The 
bottle  is  then  whirled  for  one  minute  more.  The 
length  of  the  column  of  oil  that  now  stands  in  the  neck 
of  the  bottle  indicates  how  much  butter  fat  the  milk 
contains  (Fig.  216).  There  are  marks  on  the  neck  for 
reading  this  amount  in  terms  of  percentage  of  butter 
fat.  The  whole  operation  can  be  completed  in  a  little 
more  then  ten  minutes. 

This  test  is  used  by  all  creameries.  A  sample  is  Practical 
taken  from  every  can  of  milk  that  is  brought  in.  The 
sample  is  tested,  and  the  seller  is  paid  so  much  for  each 
pound  of  butter  fat  that  the  test  shows  the  milk  to  con- 
tain. In  the  large  machines  used  in  creameries,  twenty- 
four  samples  can  be  tested  at  once.  As  only  about 
half  an  ounce  of  milk  is  taken  from  each  can  tested, 


°f  ihe 


270 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  cream 
separator 


Reasons 
for  using 
separator 


not  much  is  wasted.  Many  farmers 
use  small  Babcock  testers  and  thus 
are  able  to  tell  how  much  butter  fat 
each  cow  produces.  To  determine 
how  much  butter  can  be  made  from 
a  given  amount  of  butter  fat,  it  is 
customary  to  add  one  sixth  to  the 
weight  of  the  butter  fat,  thus  taking 
into  account  the  water  and  salt  that 
the  butter  will  contain. 

In  1879  a  cream  separator,  which 
had  been  invented  in  Europe,  was 
introduced  in  this  country.  Since 
then  several  different  separators  have 
been  put  on  the  market  and  are  now 
widely  used  on  farms  as  well  as  in 

FIG.  216.     A  Babcock-  . 

tester  bottle.  The  di-  creameries.  These  machines  all  use 
Shtr/thett^  the  principle  of  centrifugal  force. 
of  butter  fat.  This  The  milk,  being  a  little  heavier  than 

height  is  laid  off   from  .     ,,  ,,  ,. 

"o"  on  the  graduated  cream,  is  thrown  to  the  outer  part  of 
scale  The  upper  pointer  tne  whirling  separator,  while  the 

will    then    rest   on    the 

mark  that  indicates  in  cream  collects  at  the  center.  A  tube 
of  butter' fat. PerCentagC  leading  from  the  center  carries  away 
the  cream,  and  another  tube  leading 
from  the  outer  part  of  the  bowl  lets  the  milk  escape 
(Fig.  217). 

The  advantages  in  using  a  separator  are  so  great  that 
many  farmers  milking  only  a  few  cows  use  small  hand 
machines.  Scarcely  any  of  the  cream  is  lost  when  a 
separator  is  used,  while  in  skimming  by  hand  a  fourth 
of  it  is  sometimes  left  in  the  milk.  Also,  when  a  sepa- 


The  Herd  and  the  Dairy 


271 


rator  is  employed  the 
skim  milk  is  ready  to 
use  while  still  fresh, 
and  therefore  it  makes 
much  better  feed  for 
calves  than  when  it  has 
stood  until  nearly  or 
quite  sour,  waiting  for 
the  cream  to  rise. 


Experiments  and  Ob- 
servations 

1.  Observe  and  describe 
the  various  kinds  of  pure- 
bred cattle  in  your  neigh- 
borhood.     Find    out    how 
they  compare  for  dairy  pur- 
poses.    Find  out,  also,  how 
any    crossbred    cows    you 

may  see  are  influenced  in  appearance  and  value  by  the  pure 
blood  they  possess. 

2.  Compare  several  cows,  noticing  which  of  them  possesses 
the  most  marks  of  a  good  cow  as  described  in  this  chapter. 

3.  Estimate  the  age  of  the  cows  you  observe. 

4.  Whirl  a  small  weight  on  the  end  of  a  string,  and  explain 
how  the  pull  that  is  felt  is  utilized  in  the  cream  separator. 


FIG.  217. 


De  Laval  Co. 
A  hand  separator. 


References 

"The  Dairy  Herd."     Farmers'  Bulletin  55. 
"Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle."     Farmers'  Bulletin  893. 
"Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle."     Farmers'  Bulletin  612. 
"Production  of  Clean  Milk."     Farmers'  Bulletin  602. 
"Bacteria  in  Milk."     Farmers'  Bulletin  490. 
"Farm  Butter  Making."     Farmers'  Bulletin  876. 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 


Why  the 
hog  is 
valuable 


A  question 
in  farm 
manage- 
ment 


Lard 
breeds 


FARM  ANIMALS  AND  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING 

The  cattle  are  grazing, 
Their  heads  never  raising ; 
There  are  forty  feeding  like  one ! 

WILLIAM  WORDSWORTH 

AN  important  matter  that  every  farmer  has  to  decide 
is  whether  to  keep  livestock  and  feed  the  crops  he  raises 
or  to  sell  his  crops  and  keep  no  stock.  Cattle,  sheep, 
hogs,  and  poultry  require  constant  care.  They  cannot 
be  left  to  themselves  for  a  few  days  while  the  farmer 
takes  a  vacation,  as  a  field  crop  sometimes  may  be. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  often  pays  better  to  feed  such  crops 
as  grain  and  hay,  and  sell  the  resulting  product  in  the 
form  of  meat,  milk,  eggs,  and  wool,  than  to  sell  the  crops 
directly ;  and  keeping  stock  saves  the  expense  of  buying 
a  great  deal  of  fertilizer  (page  42).  The  number  of 
animals  that  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  recommends 
for  a  farm  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  is  eighty  sheep, 
twenty-two  cows,  and  twelve  hogs. 

Keeping  hogs.  There  are  several  reasons  why  the 
hog  is  one  of  the  animals  most  commonly  raised.  It 
increases  in  weight  more  than  other  animals  do  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  feed  given  it.  A  large  part  of 
its  feed,  if  it  is  kept  with  cattle,  is  made  up  of  what  the 
cattle  waste.  It  multiplies  more  rapidly  than  most 
animals  do,  as  it  frequently  occurs  that  twice  a  year 
there  are  born  litters  of  seven  or  eight  pigs  each. 

Breeds  of  hogs  have  been  improved  within  recent 
years.  The  average  hog  of  today  is  much  larger  than 

272 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    273 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  218.     Registered  Hampshire  hogs,  part  of  a  herd  of  forty  belonging  to 
this  Oregon  boy. 

the  average  hog  of  fifty  years  ago,  and  its  growth  is  more 
rapid.  The  five  breeds  most  common  in  the  United 
States  are  as  follows :  one  red  in  color,  the  Duroc 
Jersey;  one  white,  the  Chester  White;  two  black, 
the  Poland  China  and  the  Berkshire;  and  one  black 
with  a  white  band  around  the  body,  the  Hamp- 
shire. These  are  all  known  as  "  lard  hogs."  Two 
breeds  less  commonly  raised  are  known  as  "  bacon  Baton 
breeds."  They  are  the  Yorkshire  and  the  Tam- 
worth.  The  bacon  breeds  have  longer  legs  and  a 
longer  body  than  the  lard  breeds.  They  look  tall  and 
thin  in  comparison  with  such  hogs  as  the  Poland  China 
or  the  Duroc  Jersey. 

Corn  being  such  an  excellent  hog  feed,  most  of  the  hogs  Feed 


274 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


FIG.  219. 


A  family  of  Berkshires  enjoying  the  sunshine.    The  white  nose  is 
characteristic  of  the  breed.    Note  the  model  pen. 


FIG.  220. 


An  automatic  feeder  for  hogs. 
it  is  eaten. 


W.  T.  Shilling 
Grain  comes  down  as  fast  as 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    275 

in  the  United  States  are  raised  in  the  corn  belt.  But 
corn  does  not  furnish  enough  mineral  matter,  and  to 
supply  this  lack  ashes  should  be  kept  in  a  feed  rack. 
To  the  ashes  are  often  added  other  minerals :  air-slaked 
lime,  salt,  sulfur,  and  copperas.  Several  kinds  of 
grain,  to  give  variety,  are  better  for  feeding  than  any 
one  grain  alone. 

When  young  are  expected,  the  mother  should  be  sepa-   The  care 
rated  from  the  other  hogs,  for  they  sometimes  kill  the  *® 
little  pigs.     The  pen  in  which  the  young  are  kept  should 
have  a  guard  rail  within  the  wall  and  near  the  ground, 
so  that  the  mother  cannot  crush  the  little  pigs  against 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  221.  Inoculation  prevents  cholera  in  a  hog  (makes 
the  hcg  immune)  as  vaccination  prevents  smallpox  in  a 
human  being.  Immunity  against  cholera  lasts  only  a 
few  weeks,  and  for  this  reason  hogs  should  be  inoculated 
whenever  there  is  danger  of  the  disease. 


276 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Tubercu- 
losis and 
cholera 


the  wall  if  they  happen  to  be  behind  her  when  she  lies 
down. 

Tuberculosis  and  cholera  are  the  diseases  most  to  be 
feared  in  hogs.  Hogs  (or  cattle)  that  may  be  tubercular 
or  otherwise  diseased  should  be  promptly  sold  to  a 
meat-packing  establishment.  Parts  of  any  carcass 
that  the  government  meat  inspectors  find  infected  will 
be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food,  and  the  seller 
will  have  to  stand  the  loss,  if  he  has  sold  subject  to 
inspection.  But  by  disposing  of  infected  animals  in 
that  manner,  a  farmer  will  do  much  toward  stamping 
out  disease  among  men  as  well  as  among  domestic  ani- 
mals. Epidemics  of  cholera  among  hogs  have  been  the 
cause  of  great  loss  to  farmers,  but  the  danger  from  this 
source  has  been  lessened  by  the  inoculation  of  hogs,  a 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  222.     Milch  goats  in  stalls.    The  white  goats  are  of  the  Saanen  breed. 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    277 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  223.    Toggenburg  does.     Each  of  these  has  produced  more  than  4  quarts 
of  milk  a  day. 

treatment  that  makes  them  much  less  likely  to  contract 
cholera  (Fig.   221). 

Goats.     In  Europe  the  milch  goat  is  known  as  "  the 
poor  man's  cow  " ;    and  the  goats  that  are  kept  there 
give  enough  milk  to  supply  a  small  family  —  often  as 
much  as  two  quarts  a  day.     We  do  not  keep  many  goats, 
partly  because  the  American  breeds  are  not  good  milkers ; 
but  within  recent  years  we  have  begun  to  import  pure-  Imported 
bred   milch   goats,   especially   from   Switzerland.     Two  goa 
valuable  breeds  from  that  country  are  the  Saanen  and  the 
Toggenburg.     Goats  will  eat  much  that  other  animals  Feed 
would  not  relish,  but  to  thrive  they  must  be  well  fed. 
Feeds  used  for  cows  are  suitable  for  goats,  but  one  cow 
will  eat  six  or  eight  times  the  amount  needed  by  one  goat. 


278 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  224.  A  Rambouillet  ewe.  The  Rambouillets  are  a  fine-wooled  or 
"  merino"  breed.  The  heavy  folds  in  the  skin  are  desirable  because  they  give 
a  greater  surface  for  the  growth  of  wool.  Merino  sheep  were  developed  in 
Spain.  The  Rambouillets  are  known  also  as  "French  merinos." 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  225.  A  Cotswold  (long-wooled)  ram.  English  or  Scotch  names — as 
Cotswold,  Cheviot,  and  Southdown  —  indicate  mutton,  or  general-purpose, 
breeds. 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    279 


U.  S.  D.  A. 
FIG.  226.    A  dog-proof  fenced  lot,  in  which  sheep  may  be  placed  at  night. 

Sheep.     The  great  sheep  ranches  are  in  the  West,  for  Raising 
sheep  require  pasture  land ;    but  the  Department  of  ^J^°n 
Agriculture  is  now  recommending  that  farmers  all  over 
the  country   keep   a   few  sheep   (Figs.   224   and   225). 
One  sheep  to  every  two  acres  may  be  kept  to  advan- 
tage on  many  farms.     The  profit  is  partly  from  wool, 
but  mainly  from  the  half-grown  lambs  which  are  sold 
for  mutton. 

Sheep  are  so  warmly  clothed  that  they  do  not  require  Housing 
expensive  shelters  in  winter.  All  they  need  is  protection 
from  rain  and  wet  snow.  Dry  snow  does  not  hurt  them. 
If  they  have  plenty  of  pasture  to  graze  over  or  if  they 
have  hay  enough,  they  need  little  or  no  grain.  They 
are  very  effective  destroyers  of  weeds.  Fences  for  sheep 
should  be  of  woven  wire  and,  if  possible,  should  be  high 
enough  to  keep  out  dogs.  It  is  estimated  that  in  this 


280 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The  value 
of  dogs 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  227.    A  shepherd  and  his  dog.    In  helping  man  to  tend  his  herds  the  dog 
has,  from  the  earliest  times,  been  of  great  economic  value. 

country  a  hundred  thousand  sheep  are  each  year  killed 
by  dogs. 

Dogs.  Although  a  few  dogs  acquire  the  bad  habit 
of  killing  sheep,  the  fact  that  these  outlaws  exist  should 
not  spoil  the  reputation  of  dogs  in  general.  The  dog 
has  been  man's  friend  so  long  that  there  is  no  record  of  a 
time  when  it  lived  apart  as  a  wild  animal.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  wolves,  foxes,  and  jackals  can  be  tamed 
if  taken  when  young,  and  that  many  dogs  in  Alaska  and 
other  countries  where  wolves  are  abundant  have  some 
wolf  blood. 

Both  in  town  and  country  the  right  kind  of  dog,  if 
properly  trained,  will  make  himself  useful  as  a  guard  at 
night,  as  a  pet,  and  as  a  destroyer  of  rats.  The  shep- 
herd could  not  get  along  without  his  sheep  dog  (Fig. 
227).  Ten  men  could  not  make  themselves  as  helpful 
to  him  in  controlling  the  flock.  In  war,  specially  trained 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    281 

dogs,  carrying  first-aid  packages,  have  been  used  in  find- 
ing the  wounded.  Alaskan  dogs  take  the  place  of  horses, 
which  cannot  so  well  endure  the  cold  climate.  Several 
breeds  of  dogs  are  especially  useful  in  hunting.  The 
hunter  makes  use  of  the  greyhound's  fleetness,  the  fox- 
hound's power  of  following  a  scent,  and  the  pointer's 
skill  in  locating  game. 

The  hardy,  long-haired  dogs  stand  much  more  cold  Shelter 
than   can   the   small,    short-haired   breeds.     Even   the 
strongest    dogs    need    comfortable    shelter,    but    they 
should  not  be  kept  indoors.     They  are  healthier  if  given 
a  straw  bed  in  a  good  kennel. 

Dogs  are  such  active  animals  that  they  suffer  in  both  Exercise 
body  and  temper  if  they  are  kept  chained.     If  it  is 
necessary  to  tie  a  dog,  his  chain  may  be  made  to  slip 


W.  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  228.  A  rough-coated  Scotch  collie.  There  is  a  smooth-coated  variety, 
not  frequently  seen.  Collies  are  much  used  as  sheep  dogs,  especially  in 
Scotland. 


282 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


FIG.  229.  An  Airedale  terrier.  Airedales  make  good  watchdogs  as  well  as 
pets,  and  they  will  kill  rats.  The  breed  originated  at  Airedale,  in  Yorkshire, 
England. 

along  a  stretched  wire  so  that  he  can  run  the  length  of 
the  lot. 

Feeding  In  feeding  dogs  we  should  remember  that  they  are 

by  nature  flesh-eating  (carnivorous)  animals.  Their 
diet  should  contain  some  meat.  The  teeth  of  dogs  re- 
semble those  of  the  wild  carnivorous  animals,  being  sharp 
and  strong  for  biting  and  tearing,  but  not  well  adapted 
to  chewing.  Dogs  swallow  their  food  with  very  little 
chewing,  and,  consequently,  it  requires  a  long  time  for 
digestion.  For  this  reason  dogs  should  be  fed  only 
twice  a  day  —  a  light  meal  in  the  morning  and  a  more 
substantial  one  at  night.  Sweet  foods  should  not  be 
given  them,  and  starchy  foods  should  be  fed  sparingly. 
Irish  potatoes  are  very  bad  for  puppies.  But  the  dog's 
diet  should  consist  partly  of  vegetables. 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    283 

Among  the  two  hundred  breeds  of  dogs  there  are  wider  Breeds 
differences  than  among  breeds  of  most  other  animals. 
Not  only  do  dogs  vary  in  size  from  the  mastiff  down  to  the 
toy  spaniel,  but  they  differ  very  greatly  in  disposition. 
The  Scotch  collie  is  a  beautiful  and  intelligent  animal 
(Fig.  228).  The  fox  terrier  is  a  small  and  active  short- 
haired  dog  that  is  often  kept  as  a  pet.  The  largest  of 
the  terriers  is  the  Airedale  (Fig.  229).  It  is  becoming 
popular  as  a  watchdog. 

Horses.     Of  the  heavy  breeds  of  horses,  the  Clydes-  Heavy  and 
dale  originated  in  Scotland,  the  Shire,  in  England,  the  $eeds  Oj 
Percheron  in  France,  and  the  Belgian  in  Belgium.     Some  horses 
of  the  light  breeds  for  the  saddle  and  carriage  have  been 
developed  in   this  country  and  some  in  Europe,   but 
these  are  all  supposed  to  have  descended,  in  part,  at 
least,  from  the  Arabian  horse.     Arabs  are  very  fond  of 


Metropolitan  Museum 

FIG.  230.  An  Arabian  horse.  The  best  light  breeds  of  horses  in 
America  and  England  have  some  Arabian  blood.  ("Arab  Scout," 
a  painting  by  Schreyer.) 


284 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  231.  A  Morgan  stallion.  Registered  name,  "General  Gates."  The 
breed,  which  is  noted  for  its  endurance  and  general  serviceability,  originated  in 
Vermont. 


Metropolitan  Museum 
FIG.  232.    Horses  in  action.     Notice  the  gait.     (Meissonier's  "  Friedland.") 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    285 


their  horses  and  they  have 

taken  pains  to  breed  from 

individuals    that   excel    in 

endurance  and  speed.    The 

weight  of  the  light  breeds, 

such  as  the  Arabian,  the 

American  saddle  horse,  and 

the  Morgan,  is  about  ten 

or  twelve  hundred  pounds 

(Figs.  230  and  231).     The 

heavy  breeds  weigh  up  to 

two   thousand   pounds   or 

even  more. 

The   gait  most  suitable 

to  a  horse  of  heavy  breed 

is  a  walk,  but  carriage  and 

saddle  horses  may  travel  easily  in  any  one  of  several 

gaits.     In  trotting,  the  right  fore  foot  and  the  left  hind 

foot  are  moved  forward,  then  the  other  two.     In  pacing, 

both  right  feet  move  to- 
gether and  both  left  feet. 
The  single-foot  gait  (or 
"  rack  "  or  "  amble  ")  is  a 
combination  between  trot- 
ting and  pacing.  A  single- 
footer  makes  an  easy-riding 
saddle  horse.  The  gallop 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  233.  The  mouth  of  a  four-year- 
old  horse.  In  each  jaw  there  are  four 
permanent  teeth  in  front  called  "in- 
cisors." Three  of  these  are  visible  in 
the  picture.  They  are  flanked  by  two 
milk  teeth,  one  on  each  side,  white 
and  small.  The  picture  shows  one  of 
these  in  either  jaw.  At  five  years  the 
last  milk  teeth  have  been  replaced  by 
permanent  teeth,  and  the  horse  is  said 
to  be  "full-mouthed." 


u  s 
FIG.  234.    At  six  years  the  cups, 

which  appeared  in  all  of  the  incisors 
at  five  years,  have  been  worn  away  in 
the  middle  pairs. 


*s    a 
f°re 

then 
232). 


movement    °f 

feet    at     once    and 

feet    (Fig. 


Gaits 


286 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Changes  in 
a  horse's 
teeth,  ac- 
cording to 
age 


Caring  for 
horses 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  235.     The  mouth  of  a  i4-year-old 
horse.    The  teeth  are  long  and  slanting. 


The  age  of  a  horse 
can  be  quite  accurately 
told  by  its  teeth,  up  to 
seven  years  (Figs.  233, 
234,  and  235).  After 
that  the  age  can  only 
be  estimated.  Up  to 
three  years  the  animal 
has  only  small  milk  teeth 
in  front.  At  three  it  gets 
two  permanent  front 

teeth  in  each  jaw.  At  four  it  gets  two  more  permanent 
front  teeth  in  each  jaw.  At  five  the  last  of  the  milk  teeth 
disappear  and  the  horse  has  a  full  mouth  of  large  teeth 
(six  incisors  above  and  six  below),  and  these  are  all 
cupped.  At  six  years  the  two  middle  pairs  of  teeth  are 
worn  down  so  that  the  cups  do  not  show  much.  At 
seven  another  pair  have  lost  their  cups,  and  at  eight  all 
the  teeth  are  worn  smooth.  After  eight  years  the  teeth 
become  gradually  longer  and  more  slanting,  but  there 
are  no  marks  by  which  the  age  can  be  told  accurately. 
The  molars  are  not  taken  into  account  in  estimating 
the  age  of  a  horse. 

Horses  are  nervous  animals,  and  a  good  driver  will 
never  yell  at  them.  After  becoming  heated  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  cool  suddenly.  Harness  should  fit 
well  and  be  padded  so  as  not  to  cause  sores.  Frequent 
grooming  with  brush  and  comb  adds  much  to  a  horse's 
appearance  and  comfort.  The  front  legs  should  be  kept 
free  from  botflies'  eggs,  which  will  cause  disease  if  they 
are  licked  off  by  the  horse  (Figs.  236  and  237). 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    287 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIGS.  236  and  237.     The  eggs  of  botflies  on  the  front  leg  of  a  horse; 
and  a  botfly,  greatly  enlarged. 

Rabbits.  The  wild  rabbits  of  America  have  never  The  utility 
been  domesticated,  but  in  Europe  people  have  long 
kept  rabbits  as  they  do  other  domestic  animals.  The 
flesh  is  used  as  food,  and  the  skins  are  made  into  fur 
garments,  or  the  hair  is  removed  from  the  skins  and  used 
in  the  making  of  men's  felt  hats. 

Among  the  rabbits  most  commonly  kept  in  this  coun-    Varieties  of 
try  are  Belgian  Hares,  Flemish  Giants,  and  New  Zea-   jjjjjf  "~ 
land  Reds.     Belgian  Hares  weigh  about  eight  pounds  rabbits 
each  when  mature.     They  were  imported  from  Belgium, 
where  they  are  supposed  to  have  originated.     The  New 
Zealand  Reds,  which  are  becoming  very  popular,  are 


288 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Two  meth- 
ods of 
housing 


Mating ; 
the  young 


said  to  have  been  taken  originally  from  Scotland  to  New 
Zealand.  They  are  of  a  reddish  buff  color  and  are  a 
little  larger  than  Belgian  Hares.  The  Flemish  Giants, 
the  largest  of  all,  should  weigh  fifteen  pounds  or  more. 
All  of  these  are  kept  chiefly  for  meat.  The  American 
Blue  rabbit  is  appreciated  for  its  beautiful  fur,  as  is  also 
the  Himalaya.  The  Himalaya  is  a  white  rabbit  about 
half  as  large  as  the  Belgian  Hare. 

The  commonest  way  of  keeping  rabbits  in  this  country 
is  to  pen  each  one,  except  the  young,  in  a  separate 
house  called  a  "  hutch."  The  hutches  may  be  made 
like  the  one  shown  in  Figure  238,  four  feet  long,  two 
and  a  half  feet  from  front  to  back,  and  eighteen  inches 
or  two  feet  high.  If  the  floor  is  made  of  slats  separated 
by  narrow  cracks,  it  is  much  easier  to  keep  the  hutch 
clean.  Sometimes  a  number  of  rabbits  are  kept  together 
in  a  pen  to  which  shelters  are  joined ;  but  unless  the 
inclosure  is  very  large,  the  ground  cannot  be  kept  clean, 
and  diseases  that  are  fatal  to  rabbits  will  develop. 

Rabbits  should  not  be  mated  until  they  are  about 
eight  months  old.  A  nest  box  twelve  inches  wide, 
twelve  inches  high,  and  eighteen  inches  deep  should  be 
placed  in  one  corner  of  the  hutch.  A  little  soft  straw 
or  engine  waste  should  be  provided.  With  this  the 
mother  will  make  her  nest,  lining  it  with  her  own  fur. 
The  young  should  be  weaned  when  they  are  about  seven 
weeks  old.  The  doe  may  be  mated  again  when  the  young 
are  two  months  old,  and  thus  a  new  litter  will  come 
every  three  months. 

Though  rabbits  make  more  work  than  chickens, 
having  to  be  kept  in  separate  hutches,  they  will  eat 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    289 


^  W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  238.    A  New  Zealand  rabbit  and  hutch.    Notice  that  there  are  cracks 
in  the  floor  of  the  hutch,  through  which  the  light  is  shining. 

cheaper  feed.     Hay,  vegetables,  and  almost  any  sort  Kinds  and 
of  green  feed, "  including  many  kinds  of  weeds,  make     ™Uri 
up  a  large  part  of  their  diet.     (Cabbage  and  kale  are  to 
be  avoided  as  not  wholesome.)     To  do  well,  however, 
rabbits  should  be  fed  grain  also.     One  successful  breeder 
gives  the  following  as  a  good  daily  diet  for  a  rabbit: 
mash,  three  ounces  (bran  and  beet  pulp  make  a  good 
mash) ;  rolled  grain,  two  and  one  half  ounces ;  alfalfa 
hay,  five  ounces ;  green  feed,  ten  ounces.     A  doe  with 


290 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Substances 
of  which 
the    animal 
body  is 
composed 


The  body 
of  an 
animal 
compared 
with  an 
engine 


Mineral 
matter  in 
feeds 


young  needs  very  much  more  than  these  quantities. 
Twice  a  day  is  often  enough  to  feed  rabbits ;  but  hay 
should  -be  kept  before  them  in  a  rack  at  all  times.  Grain 
can  be  given  in  the  morning  and  green  feed  at  night. 

Principles  of  feeding.  We  may  get  some  idea  of  the 
kinds  of  feed  that  stock  requires  if  we  consider  of  what 
materials  the  body  of  an  animal  is  made  up.  The  bones 
contain  large  amounts  of  mineral  matter,  such  as  lime 
and  phosphorus.  The  muscle  —  the  lean  meat  —  is 
made  of  a  nitrogenous  substance  called  "  protein." 
(Exp.  i.)  There  is. some  fat  in  all  animals;  and  every 
part  of  the  body,  but  especially  the  blood,  contains 
quantities  of  water.  Evidently  the  food  must  contain 
something  that  will  make  bone,  muscle,  fat,  and 
blood. 

It  will  help  us  in  our  study  of  the  food  needs  of  ani- 
mals if  we  think  of  the*  body  of  an  animal  as  being  in  a 
way  like  an  engine,  since  the  food  that  is  digested,  like 
fuel  burned  under  a  boiler,  produces  heat  and  energy. 
A  hard-working  animal  requires  more  food,  just  as  an 
engine  drawing  a  heavier  load  than  usual  requires  more 
fuel ;  and  in  winter  more  food  is  needed  than  in  summer, 
in  order  to  keep  up  the  body  temperature.  It  has  been 
found  that  all  foods  give  as  much  heat  when  digested 
as  when  burned  —  though  more  slowly.  A  food  that 
will  give  a  great  deal  of  heat  is  a  food  that  will  give  a 
great  deal  of  energy  to  be  used  in  doing  work. 

The  ordinary  feed  of  animals  furnishes  most  of  the 
mineral  matter  needed.  Oats,  for  example,  is  a  good 
bone-making  feed,  containing  three  pounds  of  mineral 
matter  in  each  hundred  pounds.  Corn  contains  half 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    291 


W.  T.  Skilling 
FIG.  239.    The  use  of  a  feed  rack  prevents  the  waste  of  a  great  deal  of  hay. 

as  much  mineral  matter  as  oats,  and  wheat  contains  a 
little  more  than  corn. 

If  an  animal  is  growing,  its  feed  should  contain  an  Supplying 
extra  large  amount  of  protein,  as  this  is  required  for 
building  up  muscle.  Also,  if  an  animal  is  producing 
anything  that  it  requires  protein  to  make,  as  eggs  or 
milk,  the  feed  should  be  rich  in  protein.  All  kinds 
of  grain  and  hay  contain  protein,  though  in  very  different 
amounts.  Rice  contains  only  seven  pounds  of  protein 
in  each  hundred  pounds  of  grain;  corn,  ten  pounds; 
wheat,  twelve  pounds ;  bran,  sixteen  pounds ;  cotton 
seed,  twenty  pounds ;  soy  beans,  thirty-six  pounds ; 
timothy  hay,  six  pounds;  and  alfalfa  hay,  fourteen 
pounds. 
.  Muscle  cannot  be  produced  without  food  that  con- 


292  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

Oil  and        tains  protein,  but  any  food  may  assist  in  forming  fat. 

2rafe»ty~  The  chief  fattening  foods  are  oil  and  carbohydrates. 
(Sugar  and  starch  are  examples  of  carbohydrates.) 
Corn  is  used  to  fatten  cattle  because  it  contains  large 
quantities  of  both  oil  and  starch.  There  are  five  pounds 
of  oil  and  seventy  pounds  of  starch  to  each  hundred 
pounds  of  corn.  (Exp.  2.) 

Oil  as  a  Oil  (or  fat)  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of  concentrated 

carbohydrate.  It  serves  much  the  same  purpose  in 
food  as  sugar  and  starch;  namely,  to  produce  energy 
and  animal  heat.  Oil  is  made  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
the  elements  that  starch  and  sugar  are  made  of;  but 
it  contains  these  elements  in  a  different  proportion,  with 
the  result  that  oil  is  more  than  twice  as  heating  as  either 
starch  or  sugar. 

Feeding  The  proper  amount  of  feed.     The  agricultural  experi- 

ment stations  of  the  United  States  government  have  made 
tests  to  determine  the  values  of  different  kinds  of  feed  in 
different  amounts,  and  they  have  kept  careful  records 
of  the  results.  Thousands  of  feeding  tests  have  been 
made  in  other  countries  as  well,  and  a  great  deal  has 
been  learned  from  them. 

The  feed  It  has  been  shown  by  such  tests  that  a  horse  weigh- 

and°of€cows  mg  one  thousand  pounds  needs  about  twenty  pounds 
of  feed  a  day,  and  that  a  cow  of  the  same  weight  needs 
twenty-five  pounds.  Only  the  dry  matter  in  the  hay, 
after  all  moisture  has  been  evaporated,  is  represented 
in  these  weights.  The  horse's  stomach  is  smaller  than 
that  of  the  cow  and  it  is  differently  constructed,  so  that 
the  horse  cannot  eat  so  much.  The  horse,  however, 
needs  about  as  much  nutriment  as  the  cow ;  so  its  feed 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    293 

should  be  more  concentrated  to  furnish  nourishment 
without  too  much  bulk.  Less  hay  and  more  grain  is 
therefore  required  by  the  horse. 

A  ration  that  contains  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fats  Balanced 
in  correct  proportion  is  spoken  of  as  "  balanced."     Many  caMe* 
tests  have  shown  that  the  amounts  of  these  three  food 
materials  that  are  needed  to  make  a  suitable  daily  ration 
for  a  thousand-pound  cow  when  dry,  and  when  giving 
thirty  pounds  (three  and  three  fourths  gallons)  of  milk, 
are  as  follows : 


KIND  OF  FEED 

FOR  DRY  Cow 

FOR  Cow  GIVING  MILK 

Protein 
Carbohydrates 
Fats 

.7lb. 
7.0  Ib. 
.lib. 

3-3  Ib. 
13.0  Ib. 
.81b. 

For  the  cow  when  she  is  giving  milk,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  protein  and  fats  are  increased  much 
more,  in  proportion,  than  is  the  carbohydrate. 

A  dry  cow  will  do  very  well  on  hay  alone  if  it  is  of  Feeds  that 
good  quality,  but  if  she  is  thin,  she  should  also  have  a 
little  grain,  such  as  corn  or  oats.  A  cow  giving  milk 
needs  more  concentrated  feed,  and  some  of  this  should  be 
of  a  kind  that  is  rich  in  protein,  such  as  bran  and  cotton- 
seed meal.  With  good  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  the  amount 
of  concentrated  feed  required  is  less  than  if  timothy 
hay  is  used.  (Exp.  3.)  An  ox  at  heavy  work  requires 
about  the  same  proportion  of  protein  in  its  feed  as 
does  a  cow  giving  milk.  The  cells  in  the  muscles  of  a 
work  animal  are  constantly  being  broken  down  and 
must  be  repaired  with  protein. 


294 


Nature- Study  Agriculture 


W.  T.  Skilling 

FIG.  240.    A  silo.    Notice  the  iron  pipe  for  rilling  from  blower,  and  the  wooden 
chute  for  emptying. 

Silage  To  supply  green  feed  to  stock  in  winter  many  farm- 

ers build  silos  (Fig.  240)  which  they  fill  with  green 
material,  such  as  corn  and  alfalfa,  the  coarser  matter 
being  chopped  fine  or  shredded.  The  wet  silage  is  packed 
so  tightly  that  most  of  the  air  is  excluded.  The  ma- 
terial ferments,  forming  an  acid  that  helps  to  pre- 
serve the  silage  much  as  sauerkraut  is  preserved. 
Cattle  like  silage,  and  they  thrive  better  and  yield  more 
milk  when  they  are  fed  on  it  than  they  do  when  kept 
on  the  usual  dry  materials. 


Farm  Animals  and  Principles  of  Feeding    295 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Wash  the  starch  out  of  flour  that  is  held  in  a  cloth  bag. 
Only  a  wad  of  tough  gluten  remains.     This  is  the  protein  of  wheat. 

2.  To  extract  oil  from  corn  meal  put  a  spoonful  of  meal  ;into 
a  cup  and  cover  with  gasoline.    Cover  the  cup  and  let  it  stand  over- 
night.    Pour  off  the  clear  liquid  into  a  clean  dish,  and  set  it  in  the 
sun  for  evaporation.     The  oil  will  be  left.     (Keep  gasoline  away 
from  fire  /) 

3.  Find  out  what  the  dairymen  of  your  neighborhood  feed 
their  cows.     What  is  the  special  purpose  in  the  use  of  each  of  these 
feeds?     What  other  feeds  might  be  substituted  for  any  of  those 
now  used  ? 

References 

"Swine  Management."     Farmers'  Bulletin  874. 
"Breeds  of  Swine."     Farmers'  Bulletin  765. 
"Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners."     Farmers'  Bulletin  840. 
"Milk  Goats."     Farmers'  Bulletin  920. 
"How  to  Select  a  Sound  Horse."     Farmers'  Bulletin  779. 
"The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage."     Farmers'  Bulletin  578. 
"Uses  of  Sorghum  Grain."     Farmers'  Bulletin  686. 
"The  Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals."     Farmers'  Bul- 
letin 346. 


CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 


Backyard 
poultry 


Chickens  as 
scavengers 


Profit 


Keeping  a 

single 

variety 


POULTRY  KEEPING 

All  climates  agree  with  brave  chanticleer.  His  health  is  ever  good,  his 
lungs  are  sound,  his  spirits  never  flag. 

HENRY  DAVID  THOREAU 

THE  Department  of  Agriculture  has  estimated  that 
seven  hundred  million  dollars'  worth  of  eggs  and  poultry 
are  produced  in  the  United  States  each  year.  Com- 
paratively little  of  this  immense  product  comes  from  large 
poultry  farms.  Most  of  it  comes  from  the  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  farms  and  town  lots  where  a  few  chickens 
or  other  fowls  are  kept  in  order  that  they  may  turn  to 
profit  food  materials  that  otherwise  would  be  wasted 
(Fig.  241). 

Except  in  large  cities,  every  family  is  better  off  for 
having  a  few  chickens,  provided  they  are  kept  out  of 
gardens  and  at  a  suitable  distance  from  any  house. 
They  work  every  day  in  the  year,  helping  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  living.  Unlike  most  domestic  animals,  chickens 
are  omnivorous ;  that  is,  they  will  eat  all  kinds  of  food. , 
They  are  excellent  scavengers,  as  they  devour  much 
matter  that  might  decay  and  become  disagreeable  about 
a  place.  Like  other  birds,  also,  they  do  their  share 
in  preventing  the  increase  of  insect  pests. 

Not  many  years  ago  most  people  who  kept  chickens 
were  content  with  a  mixed  lot  of  various  colors  and  sizes. 
Careful  breeding  of  some  particular  variety  was  un- 
common. But  now,  whoever  pretends  to  give  much 
attention  to  poultry  keeping  is  sure  to  start  with 
a  desirable  stock  and  to  prevent  mixture  with  other 

296 


Poultry  Keeping 


297 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  241.     A  start  in  poultry.    The  leg  bands  on  the  chicks  will  permit  the 
owner  to  keep  accurate  records. 

kinds.  In  this  way  the  flock  is  kept  uniform.  Such 
a  flock  looks  better  and  does  better,  and  the  uniform 
eggs  generally  sell  at  a  little  higher  price  than  mixed 
eggs  (Fig.  242  and  Exp.  i). 

Breeds  of  chickens.  The  first  breed  to  become  popu- 
lar in  America  was  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  At 
the  suggestion  of  a  friend,  Joseph  Spalding,  a  Con- 
necticut poultry  fancier,  mated  a  common  hawk-colored 
cock,  a  Dominique,  with  a  Black  Cochin  hen.  The 
chicks  that  resulted  from  the  cross  were  found  to  resem- 
ble the  Black  Cochin  mother  in  size,  while  most  of  them 
took  their  color  from  their  Dominique  father.  The  best 
chickens  from  this  first  brood  were  chosen  to  breed  from. 
After  several  years  of  selective  breeding,  they  were 


The 

general- 
purpose 
type: 
American 
and 

English 
breeds 


How 

Plymouth 
Rocks 
originated 


298 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Wyan- 
dottes; 
varieties 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  242.  A  standard-bred  flock  of  single-comb  White  Leghorns.  It  costs 
no  more  to  feed  and  care  for  good  stock  than  for  scrub  stock,  and  the  returns 
are  much  better. 

exhibited  at  a  fair  held  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts, 
in  1869,  and  they  at  once  became  popular. 

The  popularity  of  Plymouth  Rocks  led  experimenters 
to  try  to  produce  other  improved  breeds.  The  first 
notable  result  was  the  Wyandotte  breed,  which  was 
originated  in  the  state  of  New  York  by  crossing  several 
different  breeds.  The  object  of  the  breeders  was  to 
get  a  fowl  that  would  mature  earlier  than  the  Plymouth 
Rock  and  be  a  better  layer.  The  Silver-laced  Wyan- 
dottes,  the  first  variety  produced,  have  three  times 
secured  the  first  prize  at  international  egg-producing 
contests.  There  are  now  at  least  eight  varieties  of 
the  Wyandottes,  each  distinguished  according  to  color. 
In  form  and  size  they  much  resemble  Plymouth 
Rocks,  although  they  are  somewhat  smaller.  They 
have  "  rose "  combs  (thick  and  low)  instead  of 


Poultry  Keeping 


299 


"  single "    combs   (thin   and   high)    such  as  Plymouth 
Rocks  have. 

The  little  state  of  Rhode  Island  has  for  generations  Rhode 
been  a  great  poultry-producing  region.  Almost  every 
farmer  keeps  several  flocks  of  chickens  scattered  over 
his  farm  in  separate  colonies.  Gradually,  by  mixing 
together  any  breeds  that  seemed  to  possess  good  quali- 
ties, the  Rhode  Island  farmers  secured  a  fowl  of  distinc- 
tive shape  and  color.  The  red  color  is  so  constant  that 
it  is  noted  in  the  name  of  the  breed.  The  body  is  long, 
and  it  is  large  enough  to  make  the  breed  a  good  meat 
variety.  The  Rhode  Island  Red  is  also  a  good  layer. 

Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and  Rhode  Island 
Reds  are  the  three  principal  American  breeds.  A  breed 
similar  to  these,  though  somewhat  larger  and  having  a 


Orpingtons 


T.  Stilling 


FIG.  243.     Rhode  Island  Reds,  White  Leghorns,  and  Plymouth  Rocks,  part 
of  a  school  flock. 


300 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


The 
type:, 
iterranean 
chickens 


Leghorns 

and 

Minorcas 


Character- 
istics of 
Leghorns 


white  skin,  was  originated  in  England  at  a  place  called 
Orpington.  The  first  Orpington  chickens  were  black, 
but  other  varieties  of  the  breed  have  been  developed, 
one  of  which  is  buff,  one  white,  and  one  of  a  mixed  color. 
The  White  Orpingtons  are  the  best  layers,  probably 
because  they  possess  some  White  Leghorn  blood,  this 
being  a  specially  good  laying  breed  (Fig.  243). 

The  four  breeds  that  have  been  considered  are  known 
as  "  general-purpose  "  chickens  because  they  are  both 
good  layers  and  good  meat  producers.  The  Leghorns 
from  Italy,  the  Minorcas  from  the  island  of  that  name, 
and  other  breeds  from  the  Mediterranean  region  are 
known  as  "  egg  "  breeds.  The  Leghorns,  of  which  there 
are  a  number  of  color  varieties,  are  very  small.  The 
Minorcas  are  larger,  have  long  bodies,  and  stand  very 
erect.  The  Black  Minorca,  especially,  is  a  very  hand- 
some bird.  But  the  Mediterranean  chickens  are  not  so 
good  for  meat  as  the  general-purpose  breeds,  for  they 
have  larger  skeletons  in  proportion  to  their  flesh.  All 
the  Mediterranean  chickens  lay  large,  white  eggs. 

The  Leghorn  undoubtedly  lays  more  eggs  than  any 
other  breed  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  feed  eaten. 
Leghorns  are  very  active  and  require  either  a  large  range 
or  plenty  of  straw  to  scratch  in.  They  seldom  become 
broody,  and  when  they  do  sit  they  rarely  stay  on  the 
eggs  long  enough  to  hatch  them.  Leghorns  are  quick- 
maturing  chickens,  the  cockerels  making  excellent  broilers 
at  two  months  and  the  pullets  sometimes  beginning  to 
lay  at  five  months.  They  do  not  stand  cold  as  well  as 
the  larger,  loose-feathered  breeds,  and  they  are  trouble- 
some about  flying.  For  these  reasons  some  general- 


Poultry  Keeping  301 

purpose  breed  is  often  considered  more  desirable  on 
the  farm.  But  Leghorns  are  very  generally  kept  on 
large  poultry  farms,  the  white  and  the  brown  varieties 
being  most  popular. 

The  principal  breeds  of  the  meat  type  of  chicken  are  the  The  meat 
Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Langshans,  all  of  which  have  ^Jatic 
come  to  us  from  Asia.     They  are  very  large,  and  the  chickens 
thick  coat  of   fluffy  feathers  extending   down  the  legs 
makes  them  appear  even  larger  than  they  are.     The 
quantity   of    feathers    helps    to    adapt   them    to    cold 
climates. 

Brahmas  are  the  largest  of  all  breeds,  the  males  weigh-  Brahmas 
ing  twelve  pounds  and  the  females  nine  and  a  half  pounds. 
They  are  thought  to  have  originated  in  India.  They 
were  once  quite  popular  in  America,  but  now  few  of  them 
are  to  be  found.  There  are  two  color  varieties,  the  light 
and  the  dark. 

Cochins  of  several  colors,  the  Buff  Cochin  being  most  Cochins 
popular,  are  found  to  some  extent  in  this  country.  They 
are  more  abundantly  feathered  than  even  the  Brah- 
mas, the  Buff  Cochin  hen  looking  almost  like  a  huge, 
fluffy  ball  of  light-brown  feathers.  The  Cochins  orig- 
inated in  southeastern  Asia.  They  were  formerly 
called  "  Shanghais." 

The  Langshans,  nearly  related  to  the  Cochins,  were  Langshans 
originally  brought  from  the  Langshan  district  in  north- 
ern   China.     The    commonest   variety    is   black.     The 
Langshans  carry  both  head  and  tail  high  and  are  fine- 
looking  birds.  Whal  each 

According  to  standards  of  perfection  adopted  for  the  ^hould 
various  breeds  and  used  in  judging  fowls  at  poultry  weigh 


302 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


shows,  the  following  table  gives  the  right  weights  for 
each : 


How  to 
raise  good 
layers 


The  quality 
to  breed  for 


TYPE 

BREED 

COCK 

HEN 

Pounds 

pounds 

f  Plymouth  Rock  .     .     . 

9$ 

1\ 

General-purpose 

!  Wyandotte     .... 
\  Rhode  Island  Red  .     . 

8^ 
8^ 

6i 
6* 

[  Orpington  

10 

8 

Egg      .... 

(Leghorn     
{Minorca     

5^ 
9 

4 

7^ 

f  Brahma      

12 

9* 

Meat    .... 

{  Cochin  

II 

81 

[Langshan  

912 

1\ 

Important  as  it  is  to  have  a  good  breed  of  chickens,  it 
is  equally  important  to  have  a  good  strain  of  that  breed. 
In  every  breed  some  hens  are  better  layers  than  others, 
and  their  special  characteristics  are  inherited  by  chickens 
hatched  from  their  eggs.  If  eggs  from  the  best  layers 
of  each  generation  of  chickens  are  selected  for  setting, 
a  strain  of  good  layers  will  soon  be  developed.  It  is 
important  that  the  cockerels  be  hatched  from  eggs  of 
good  laying  hens.  There  are  many  poultry  breeders 
who  believe  that  egg-laying  ability  is  inherited  more 
through  the  male  than  through  the  female. 

With  chickens,  as  with  cattle,  it  is  better  to  breed  from 
the  high  producers  than  from  those  that  have  some 
special  "  show "  color  or  other  unimportant  charac- 
ter. It  is  sometimes  remarked  that  White  Leghorns 
are  even  better  layers  than  Brown  Leghorns  because 
breeding  for  color  takes  less  attention  with  the  white 
variety. 


Poultry  Keeping 


303 


W.  T.  Shilling 


How  to 
determine 
which  hens 
are  good 
layers;  color 
of  legs 


FIG.  244.    Trap  nests.     It  is  necessary  to  visit  the  nests  several  times  a  day, 
and  to  record  the  number  on  the  leg  band  of  each  hen  that  lays. 

It  has  been  proved  that  hens  having  faded  white 
shanks  are  good  layers.  The  eggs  from  a  hen  whose 
legs  are  still  yellow  after  one  laying  season  should  not 
be  saved  to  set.  The  coloring  matter  of  the  breeds  hav- 
ing yellow  legs  seems  to  be  used  up  in  producing  eggs. 
This  theory  is  of  no  value  in  the  case  of  breeds  having 
naturally  white  legs,  such  as  the  Orpington. 

Another  way  to  tell  whether  or  not  a  hen  is  a  good  Hoganizing 
layer  is  to  measure  the  space  between  the  end  of  the 
breastbone  and  the  pin  bones,  and  also  the  space  be- 
tween the  pin  bones.  The  more  fingers  one  can  lay  in 
these  spaces,  the  better  layer  a  hen  is  likely  to  be.  Mr. 
Hogan  of  Petaluna,  California,  originated  this  test. 

To  find  out  with  certainty  which  hens  are  good  layers  Trap  nests 


304 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


and  which  are  not,  the  thing  to  do  is  to  employ  trap 
nests,  and  to  keep  a  record  of  the  number  of  eggs  that 
each  hen  lays  (Fig.  244  and  Exp.  2). 

Turkeys  Other  poultry.  Distinct  varieties  of  domesticated 

turkeys  are  found  in  various  countries,  but  all  of  them 
are  descended  from  the  wild  turkey,  which  was  not  known 
until  America  was  discovered.  The  usual  color  in  Spain 

Breeds  is  black,  and  in  Holland  it  is  white.  In  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut  there  has  been  developed  a  gray  va- 
riety called  the  "  Narragansett  "  turkey.  The  com- 
monest variety  is  the  Bronze  turkey  (Fig.  245),  which  is 
very  little  different  from  the  original  wild  stock,  some 
few  of  which  are  still  found  in  the  forests.  Turkeys 
are  hardy  fowls  when  grown.  The  young,  however, 


u.  s.  D.  A. 


FIG.  245.     A  Bronze  turkey  mother.     Benjamin  Franklin  was  in  favor  of  making 
the  turkey  our  national  bird  because  it  is  native  only  to  America. 


Poultry  Keeping 


305 


FIG.  246.     A  white  Muscovy  drake. 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


Various 
breeds 


are  delicate  and  difficult  to  raise,  and  they  must  be  kept  The  young 
out  of  damp  grass,  as  they  easily  chill  to  death. 

All  breeds  of  ducks  except  one  (the  Muscovy)  have  Ducks 
been  developed  from  the  wild  mallard  in  the  Old  World. 
Ducks  eat  much  more  than  chickens,  and  as  egg  pro- 
ducers they  are  generally  considered  less  profitable 
than  hens.  They  are  raised  mainly  for  meat.  The 
Rouen  duck,  from  northern  France,  very  closely  re- 
sembles the  mallard.  The  Aylesbury  duck,  the  com- 
mon English  breed,  is  white.  So,  also,  is  the  Pekin 
duck,  originally  from  China,  which  is  the  most  popular 
breed  in  America.  The  Indian  Runner,  a  duck  that 
stands  almost  erect,  is  the  best  layer  of  all.  It  is 
spoken  of  as  the  Leghorn  of  the  duck  family. 

At  least  one  other  breed  of  ducks  is  of  interest  to  us  —  Muscovy 
a  breed  distinct  from  all  of  those  that  sprang  from  the 
wild    mallard    stock.     They    are    called    "  Muscovy " 


ducks 


306 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


jGeese 


FIG.  247.    A  flock  of  Toulouse  geese 


ducks,  and  they  were  brought  from  South  America. 
(The  reference  in  the  name  is  to  musk  and  not  to  a  part 
of  Russia.)  They  are  the  largest  of  all  ducks,  the  adult 
drake  weighing  ten  pounds ;  and  they  are  very  quick 
to  mature.  Muscovies  are  not  so  noisy  as  ordinary 
ducks.  They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  quackless  " 
ducks,  for  their  call  resembles  a  peep  rather  than  a  quack. 
Five  weeks  are  required  to  hatch  the  eggs  of  the  Mus- 
covy, the  eggs  of  other  ducks  requiring  but  four  weeks 
(Fig.  246). 

The  breeds  of  geese  that  are  most  popular  in  this 
country  are  the  Emden  and  the  Toulouse.  The  Emdens 
are  the  white  geese  that  we  ordinarily  see.  They  were 
originally  brought  from  Germany.  The  Toulouse  geese 
are  the  common  gray  variety.  They  originated  in  south- 
ern France,  but  they  were  first  brought  to  this  country 
from  England.  No  geese  are  very  profitable  as  egg 


Poultry  Keeping  307 


N.  Y.  Zoological  Society 

FIG.  248.  Canada  geese,  the  wild  variety  once  common  in  North  America. 
These  are  raised  in  domestication  chiefly  for  use  as  decoys  —  an  unworthy  pur- 
pose, since  our  wild  geese  are  already  in  danger  of  extinction. 

producers.  They  are  all  kept  chiefly  for  their  flesh 
and  feathers,  or  for  ornament.  The  Canada  goose,  the 
common  wild  variety,  is  domesticated  in  some  localities 
(Figs.  247  and  248). 

Guinea  fowls  are  native  to  Africa  and  Madagascar.   Guinea 
Although  the  domestic  varieties  have  been  in  captivity  ** 
for  centuries,  they  still  retain  their  wild  nature.     They 
thrive  only  on  the  farm,  where  the^have  plenty  of  room 
to  forage  and  where  they  can  hide  their  nests  and  hatch  • 
their  young  in  secret.     Like  wild  birds,  they  will  desert 
their  nests  if  these  have  been  disturbed.     Being  so  wild 
and  alert,  they  add  to  the  safety  of  the  poultry  yard  at 
night  by  setting  up  a  loud  clatter  if  any  one  intrudes. 
The  common  breeds  are  the  gray  (or  pearl)  guinea  and 
the  white  guinea.     The  flesh  of  guinea  fowls  makes  a 
good  substitute  for  wild  game,  and  their  small,  dark- 


t 

308  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

brown  eggs,  generally  used  for  cooking,  are  of  good  flavor. 
Guinea  hens  are  good  layers. 

Pigeons  The  many  different  breeds  of  domestic  pigeons  are  all 

believed  to  be  descended  from  the  wild  rock  doves  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  They  are  known  to  have  been  in 
domestication  for  at  least  three  thousand  years.  Hom- 
ing pigeons  were  formerly  much  used  for  carrying 
messages.  A  few  pigeons  are  often  kept  as  pets,  and  in 
larger  numbers  they  are  made  a  source  of  profit  through 
the  sale  of  squabs  (young  pigeons).  The  parent  birds 
take  turns  in  sitting  upon  the  two  eggs,  and  when  the 
young  are  hatched  they  give  them  a  partly  digested 
food  from  their  crops,  called  "  pigeon  milk."  Pigeons 
free  to  fly  find  much  of  their  own  food  and  require  little 
care,  but  when  kept  confined  they  should  be  fed  several 
varieties  of  grain,  and  they  should  be  supplied  with 
green  feed,  shell,  and  rock  salt. 

The  colony        Caring  for  poultry.     When  only  a  few  dozen  chickens 
method  and   are  kept  on  a  farm  where  they  have  an  abundance  of 

the  intensive  J 

method  of  range  to  forage  over,  they  require  little  care.  But  where 
poultry  several  hundred  or  several  thousand  fowls  are  kept  on 
a  small  area,  they  must  be  carefully  handled.  There 
are  two  methods  of  managing  large  numbers  of  fowls : 
one  is  to  separate  them  into  small  flocks  (colonies)  and 
scatter  them  over  the  farm  as  far  apart  as  possible, 
each  colony  having  its  own  little  house  and  range ;  the 
other  is  to  keep  them  all  in  one  house  or  in  several  houses 
close  together  (the  "intensive"  method),  with  little 
if  any  range.  By  the  colony  method  a  great  deal  of 
freedom  is  allowed  the  chickens,  and  they  are  more 
easily  kept  in  a  healthy  condition.  But  the  work  is 


Poultry  Keeping 


309 


Mo.  State  Poultry  Exp. 

FIG.  249.    A  model  poultry  house,  the  result  of  years  of  experimentation  and 
study  at  the  Missouri  State  Poultry  Experiment  Station. 

much  less  in  caring  for  one  large  flock  than  in  caring 
for  several  small  flocks. 

Wherever  possible,  poultry  houses  are  built  facing  the  Houses 
south,  with  a  part  of  the  front  closed  only  with  screen  wire 
so  as  to  give  sun  and  air  free  access  (Figs.  249  and  250, 
and  Exp.  3).  A  cloth  curtain  is  so  arranged  that  it  can 
be  let  down  to  close  the  front  more  securely  in  stormy 
weather.  Poultrymen  have  learned  that  fowls,  like 
people,  are  more  vigorous  and  healthy  if  given  plenty 
of  fresh  air  and  sunshine.  In  very  cold  climates  a  roost-  Warmth 
ing  closet  is  provided  inside  the  chicken  house,  so  that 
the  fowls  may  be  warmer  at  night.  This  closet  is  shut 
off  only  with  a  cloth  door,  so  that  plenty  of  air  will  enter. 

A  style  of  coop  that  will  accommodate  comfortably  Doubling 
a  larger  number  of  chickens  than  would  otherwise  be 
possible  on  a  small  space  is  built  with  two  floors  connected 


Air  and 
sunshine 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Roosts  and 
nests 


w.  T.  suuing 
FIG.  250.     Mixing  concrete  for  the  floor  of  a  school  chicken  house. 

by  a  stairway.  This  doubles  the  area  over  which  the 
chickens  may  move  about.  The  lower  floor  is  of  earth 
that  is  kept  soft  and  fine  for  the  fowls  to  scratch  in  and 
dust  themselves.  The  upper  story  is  provided  with 
roosts  and  nests,  and  troughs  for  feed  and  water;  and 
the  board  floor  is  kept  covered  six  or  eight  inches  deep 
with  cut  straw.  The  straw  keeps  the  place  clean  and 
gives  the  chickens  something  to  scratch  in  for  their  feed, 
compelling  them  to  exercise. 

The  roosts  may  be  made  of  two-by-two-inch  sticks 
with  the  corners  rounded  off  a  little.  About  ten  inches 
under  the  roosts  there  should  be  placed  a  platform  made 
of  planed  boards  so  that  it  may  easily  be  cleaned.  The 
nests  are  made  in  compartments  about  a  foot  square, 
the  tops  being  covered  to  keep  the  nests  clean.  Parti- 
tions between  nests  are  often  omitted,  so  that  several 
hens  will  not  try  to  crowd  into  one  nest.  For  a  few 


Poultry  Keeping 


hens,  small  packing  boxes,  as  sweet-corn  cases,  can  be 
made  to  serve  very  well.  Chickens  will  be  more  likely 
to  use  nests  if  they  are  somewhat  hidden. 

The  feed  of  chickens  needs  to  be  more  concentrated 
than  that  of  ordinary  farm  animals,  because  of  their 
rapid  growth,  for  which  much  protein  (muscle-building 
food)  is  necessary,  and  because  their  eggs  are  rich  in 
protein  (Fig.  251).  Protein,  as  we  have  learned  (page 
291),  must  be  supplied  in  food,  as  an  animal  cannot  turn 
other  food  materials  into  protein.  If  there  is  not  suffi- 
cient protein  in  the  hen's  feed,  she  must  wait  until  she 
accumulates  enough  of  it,  before  laying  an  egg. 

The  jungle-fowl  ancestors  of  chickens  (Fig.  252)  were 
able  to  catch  enough  insects  to  make  up  their  protein 
supply,  and  domestic  chickens  must  be  supplied  with 
meat,  or  sour  milk,  or  some  special  feed  as  a  substitute 
for  insects  in  their  diet.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
ground  feed  that  contain  large 
amounts  of  protein  and  oil.  These 
are  known  as  oil  meals.  They 
make  good  chicken  feed.  Ex- 
amples of  oil  meals  are  soy-bean 
meal,  linseed  meal,  and  cotton- 
seed meal.  Bran,  also,  contains 
a  good  deal  of  protein.  The 
ordinary  grains,  such  as  wheat 
and  corn,  do  not  contain  a  large 
enough  proportion  of  protein  to 
supply  the  laying  hen's  needs 

FIG.  251.  What  it  takes  to 
make  an  egg.  Analysis  by 
weight. 


Why 

chickens 
need  feeds 
that  are 
rich  in 
prole  in 


Meat,  sour 
milk,  oil 
meals,  bran, 
and  grains 


Protein 


w  i.       -..     -j    t  u 

We  often  hear  it  said  of  hens 


312 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


"  Too  fat 
to  Lay  " 


The 
amount 
that  a  hen 
will  eat 


Proportions 
to  be  fed 


N.  Y.  Zoological  Society 

The  jungle  fowl  of  southeastern  Asia,  from  which  our  domestic 
Notice  the  resemblance  to  a  gamecock. 


FIG.  252. 

chickens  are  descended 


that  they  are  too  fat  to  lay.  Hens  seldom  become 
over-fat  because  they  get  too  much  feed  —  they  can 
hardly  get  too  much  of  the  right  kinds  of  feed  —  but 
because  they  get  too  much  starchy  feed,  generally  grain, 
which  makes  fat,  and  too  little  feed  containing  protein, 
such  as  meat,  milk,  or  oil  meal,  which  makes  eggs. 

The  amount  of  feed  that  a  Leghorn  hen  should  have  in 
a  year  has  been  found  to  be  about  seventy-two  pounds, 
not  including  green  feed.  About  one  half  of  this  amount 
should  be  whole  grain,  the  other  half  ground  feed  or 
"  mash  "  (Figs.  254  and  255).  The  grain  ration  may  be 
made  up  of  a  mixture  of  any  two  or  three  of  the  ordinary 
grains,  as  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  or  milo.  If  hens 
do  not  have  plenty  of  room  in  which  to  range,  their  graip 


Poultry  Keeping 


should  be  fed  in  six  inches  of  straw.  The  mash  should 
be  about  seventy-five  per  cent  bran  and  ground  grain, 
ten  per  cent  oil  meal,  and  fifteen  per  cent  dried  meat 
scrap.  One  pound  of  fine  salt  should  be  well  stirred 
into  two  hundred  pounds  of  mash.  Large  amounts 
of  salt  are  poisonous  —  if  a  hen  eats  a  lump  of  salt  it 
will  kill  her.  Cottonseed  meal  also  is  poisonous  to  chick- 
ens if  it  constitutes  more  than  five  per  cent  of  the  whole 
mash.  Charcoal  may  be  added  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  to  forty  pounds  of  mash.  The  mash  may  be  kef  t 
in  a  hopper  before  the  chickens  all  .the  time.  For 
convenience,  and  to  keep  the  hens  from  eating  too  much, 
the  mash  should  be  fed  dry  (Fig.  256). 

The  particular  kinds  of  grain  and  mill  feed  to  use  will  A  sample 
depend  somewhat  on  prices  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.     One    state    experiment    station    recommends  hens 
the  following : 

Grain   ration.      One   tenth   of    a    pound    of    whole 
grain  a  day,  to  each 
chicken.     (The  large 
breeds   need   a   little 
more.) 

Mash.  All  that  the 
chickens  will  eat  dry 
of  the  following  mix- 
ture :  bran,  50  Ib. ; 
ground  grain,  25  Ib. ; 
oil  meal,  10  Ib. ;  meat 
meal  or  fish  meal, 
15  Ib.;  sifted  salt, 
I-  Ib. ;  charcoal,  2^  Ib. 


PEN  *l 

BUTTERMILK 


PEN  *3 
BEEF  SCRAP 


PEN  *Z 

NO  MILK  OR 
MEAT   FOOD 


730  EGGS 
COST  SI8 

International  Harvester  Co. 

FIG.  253.  It  pays  to  supply  laying  hens  with 
feeds  that  contain  a  high  percentage  of  protein. 
Each  basket  of  eggs  represents  the  production 
of  a  separate  lot  of  25  hens,  during  a  period  of 
8  months,  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College. 


314 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  254.  Breed  as  well  as  feed  makes  a  difference  in  egg  production.  The 
average  yearly  production  for  each  of  2000  hens  entered  in  a  contest  was  151  eggs. 
The  average  yearly  production  of  the  common  hen  is  85  eggs.  (Basket  at  left 
contains  151  eggs;  that  at  right,  85.) 


W.  T.  SUlling 

FIG.  255.  One  year's  feed  for  a  hen,  and  her  egg  production.  Based  on  prices 
in  your  neighborhood,  what  are  the  values  of  the  "raw  materials"  and  of  the 
"finished  product"? 


Poultry  Keeping 


W.  T.  Stilling 
FIG.  256.    A  box  like  this  for  feeding  dry  mash  prevents  waste. 

In  order  to  keep  hens  in  health,  they  must  have  all  the  Green  feed, 
green  feed  they  want  daily.  They  should  also  be  supplied 
with  grit.  It  is  generally  considered  that,  having  no 
teeth,  fowls  need  to  have  grit  in  their  gizzards  to  grind 
their  feed.  Ground  oyster  or  clam  shells  are  very  com- 
monly used  for  grit.  The  shells  supply  lime,  which  is 
so  necessary  in  forming  egg  shells  (Fig.  257).  Pure 
water  can  most  easily  be  furnished  from  a  hydrant  so 
arranged  that  the  water  will  continually  drop  into  the 
drinking  receptacle.  The  water  that  may  overflow 
should  be  carried  away  in  a  drain,  to  prevent  mud.  A 
drinking  fountain  like  those  shown  in  Figure  258  is  used 
for  chicks.  They  cannot  drown  in  it. 

Not  until  two  days  or  even  three  days  after  the  hatch  is  Feeding 
finished  should  the  chicks  have  anything  except  water  and 
sand.     This  is  because  nature  supplies  them  with  nour- 
ishment at  this  time,  some  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg  from 
which  they  were  hatched  being  still  in  their  digestive 


chicks 


316 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Incubation 


FIG.  257. 
ing  shell. 
a  hinge. 


W.  T.  Stilling 

A  convenient  box  for  supply- 
Notice  that  the  top  opens  on 


Self- 
regulating 
incubators 


organs.  Commercial 
chick  feed  is  a  very 
convenient  and  satisfac- 
tory feed  for  chicks  until 
they  are  old  enough  to 
eat  ordinary  grain.  If 
their  feed  is  prepared  at 
home,  it  may  consist  of 
rolled  oats,  hard-boiled 
eggs  chopped  up  with 
the  shells,  stale  bread 
or  toast  moistened,  and 
cracked  corn  or  other 
grain.  Too  much  soft 
feed  will  injure  their 
digestions.  It  is  well  to 
give  them  buttermilk  to  drink  from  the  first  day.  When 
they  are  about  a  week  old,  they  may  be  given  a  little  dry 
mash  each  day.  Chick  mash  should  contain  more  bran 
and  less  of  the  more  concentrated  meals  that  are  used 
in  the  mash  for  laying  hens.  If  the  chicks  have  all  the 
milk  they  want,  they  do  not  need  any  meat  meal  in  their 
mash. 

The  body  of  a  hen  has  a  temperature  of  about  106 
degrees,  and  when  brooding  her  eggs  she  is  able  to  keep 
them  at  about  103  degrees.  By  keeping  eggs  sufficiently 
warm  with  a  slow  smudge  or  charcoal  fire,  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the  Chinese  in  very  early  times  practiced 
artificial  incubation. 

Self-regulating  incubators  first  came  into  use  about 
1875.  They  are  devised,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  repro- 


Poultry  Keeping 


W.  T.  Shilling 
FIG.  258.     A  commercial  drinking  fountain  for  chicks,  and  a  home-made  one. 


W  T.  Stilling 

FIG.  259.    A  feeding  pen  for  little  chickens.    It  is  covered  with  coarse-meshed 
wire  to  keep  other  chickens  out. 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Why 

moisture  is 
necessary 


Turning 
and  cooling 
the  eggs 


w.  T.  smiina 

FIG.  260.    The  two  boys  have  operated  this  incubator  with  most 
satisfactory  results. 

duce  the  conditions  of  natural  incubation.  The  burner 
which  heats  them  is  provided  with  an  attachment  that 
prevents  the  temperature  from  changing  much.  When 
the  egg  chamber  gets  too  cool  this  self -regulator  admits 
more  heat,  and  when  it  gets  too  hot  some~6f  the  heat  is 
shut  off. 

To  keep  the  eggs  from  drying  out  too  much  and 
weakening  the  chicks,  the  air  within  the  incubator  must 
be  kept  moist;  so  water  is  kept  in  a  pan  within  the 
incubator,  or  the  floor  of  the  incubator  house  is  sprinkled 
occasionally.  Eggs  for  setting  should  never  be  washed, 
for  water  removes  a  natural  coating  which  is  necessary 
to  keep  them  from  drying  out  too  fast. 

The  eggs  are  turned  and  cooled  at  fixed  intervals,  in 
imitation  of  the  action  of  the  hen.  The  mother  hen's 


Poultry  Keeping 


instinct  leads  her  to  shuffle  the  eggs  about  frequently 
with  her  bill,  and  she  comes  off  the  nest  each  morning  to 
get  feed,  often  remaining  away  for  twenty  or  thirty  min- 
utes until  the  eggs  are  nearly  cold.  Turning  each  egg 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  chick  from  sticking  to  the  shell. 
Eggs  should  be  turned  twice  daily  up  to  the  eighteenth 
day.  After  that,  each  chick  is  so  large  that  it  cannot 
easily  change  its  position  in  the.  shell,  and  so  it  is  better 
not  to  turn  the  eggs  any  more. 

It  is  necessary  to  allow  fresh  air  to  enter  the  incubator,  Ventilation 
for  air  is  as  essential  to  the  life  of  the  embryo  chick 
within  the  shell  as  it  is  to  the  same  chick  a  few  weeks 
later.  The  porous  shell  allows  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to 
be  absorbed  into  the  blood  of  the  chick.  The  hands 
should  not  be  oily  from  handling  the  lamp  when  the  eggs 
are  turned,  for  oil  on  the  egg  shells  would  prevent  air 


FIG.  261.  A  brooder  made  by  pupils  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  at 
Platteville,  Wisconsin.  Young  chicks  need  to  be  kept  warm.  The  brooder 
temperature  should  be  about  85°  F. 


320 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Develop- 
ment of 
the  embryo 
chick 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIGS.  262  and  263.  Figure  262  (above)  shows  a  fertile  and  an  infertile  egg  after 
both  had  been  kept  for  24  hours  at  the  temperature  required  for  incubation 
(about  103°  F.).  Figure  263  (below)  shows  a  fertile  and  an  infertile  egg 
after  both  had  been  kept  at  this  temperature  for  seven  days. 

from  entering.  A  supply  of  air  for  the  chick  is  stored 
at  the  large  end  of  the  egg. 

Within  less  than  a  day  after  an  egg  has  been  set,  the 
tiny  germ  has  begun  to  grow  (Figs.  262  and  263), 
and  it  is  quite  noticeable  if  the  egg  is  broken  and  ex- 
amined. In  two  days  the  heart,  which  has  now 
begun  to  beat,  is  sending  blood  through  a  network 
of  fine  arteries  and  veins.  In  four  days  wings  and 
legs  begin  to  develop.  The  feathers  begin  to  appear  on 


Poultry  Keeping 


321 


How  the 
chick  gels 
out  of  its 
shell 


the  eighth  day.  About 
two  weeks  are  necessary 
for  the  hard  beak  and 
claws  to  develop.  At 
the  end  of  three  weeks 
the  now  fully  formed 
chick  begins  to  peck 
with  its  hard  beak 
against  the  inside  of 
the  shell,  which  finally 
gives  way.  Thus  a 
ring  is  broken  about  a 
third  of  the  way  around 
the  shell,  when  the 
chick,  by  pushing  with 
its  feet  against  the  small 
end  and  with  its  head 
against  the  large  end, 
bursts  the  shell  all  the  way  round  and  is  free. 

Some  of  the  changes  during  the  three  weeks  of  incuba-  Testing 
tion  can  be  seen  through  the  shell  by  using  an  egg  tester  eggs 
(Fig.  264  and  Exp.  4).  The  tester  may  be  simply  a 
piece  of  cardboard  with  a  hole  in  it,  opposite  which 
the  egg  may  be  held  while  looking  through  it  toward 
a  lamp.  The  process  is  sometimes  called  "  candling." 
Eggs  in  an  incubator  are  usually  tested  on  the  seventh 
day,  for  then  the  embryo  in  the  fertile  eggs  has  developed 
sufficiently  to  be  easily  seen.  If  an  egg  is  infertile,  it 
will  be  clear  like  a  fresh  egg.  Such  eggs  are  often  taken 
out  and  used  for  food,  though  it  is  recommended  that 
they  be  used  as  feed  for  young  chicks.  (Exp.  5.) 


FIG.  264.  An  egg  tester.  The  cover  for 
the  lamp  is  of  corrugated  paper  such  as 
packing  cartons  are  made  of.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  cover,  to  the  right,  are  two 
holes  to  permit  the  entrance  of  air. 


322 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Fertile 
and  infer- 
tile eggs 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  265.  Preserving  eggs  in  water  glass.  A  quart  of  commercial  water  glass 
diluted  with  9  quarts  of  water  that  has  been  boiled  and  then  cooled  is  enough 
to  preserve  15  dozen  eggs.  A  covered  glass  or  stoneware  jar  should  be  used. 

Since  infertile  eggs  are  not  entirely  spoiled  even  by 
being  under  the  hen  or  in  an  incubator  for  a  week,  we 
can  see  that  they  have  good  keeping  qualities.  This 
makes  them  more  desirable  than  fertile  eggs  for  market- 
ing. A  fertile  egg  begins  to  develop  blood  rings  in  about 
two  days.  Even  the  heat  of  warm  summer  weather 
will  sometimes  start  the  germ  of  a  fertile  egg  to  growing 
and  make  blood  marks  in  the  egg.  Poultrymen  usually 
keep  the  hens  and  the  roosters  separate  when  they  want 
eggs  for  the  market,  so  that  the  eggs  will  be  infertile. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  528  states  that  there  is  an  annual 
loss  of  fifteen  million  dollars'  worth  of  eggs  due  to  blood 


Poultry  Keeping 


323 


rings,  all  of  which  might  be  prevented  by  having  the 
eggs  infertile. 

When  eggs  are  plentiful  and  the  price  is  low,  it  is  a 
good  thing  to  lay  them  away  in  crocks  of  water  glass 
until  they  are  scarce  and  high  (Fig.  265).  Water  glass 
can  be  bought  at  a  poultry  supply  store  at  about  seventy- 
five  cents  a  gallon,  and  one  gallon  will  make  ten  gallons 
when  diluted  for  use.  (Exp.  6.)  The  shells  of  pre- 
served eggs  are  apt  to  . 

break  in  boiling,  but 
this  can  be  prevented 
by  making  a  hole  in 
each  egg  with  a  needle, 
before  cooking. 

With  chickens,  as 
with  people,  hygiene  is 
of  more  importance 
than  medicine.  Clean 
surroundings,  suitable 
food,  plenty  of  pure 
water,  fresh  air,  exer- 
cise, protection  from  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold, 
and  the  avoidance  of 
contagious  diseases  — 
all  of  these  make  less 
the  need  for  doctoring. 

The    first    condition 

.  W.  T.  Stilling 

necessary     to     keeping     FlG.  266.    Dusting  a  hen  with  insect 

fowls    Comfortable    and       Powder.    The  boy  at  the  left  rubs  the 
.  powder  in.     It  is  especially  important  to 

healthy  IS  that  they  be      protect  sitting  hens  from  lice. 


Preserving 
eggs 


The  health 
of  poultry 


How  to 
prevent 
vermin 


324 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


Removing 
causes  of 
disease 


Contagious 
diseases 


free  from  lice  and  mites.  Lice  live  and  breed  upon  the 
bodies  of  the  fowls,  but  mites  remain  hidden  in  crevices 
during  the  day,  coming  out  only  at  night  for  their  food. 
Plenty  of  fine  dust  or  ashes  should  be  where  the  chickens 
can  wallow  in  it.  The  dust  that  they  apply  to  their 
bodies  protects  them  against  lice.  A  lice  powder,  sold 
for  the  purpose,  may  be  rubbed  into  the  feathers,  if  it 
is  needed.  This  attention  is  especially  necessary  for 
sitting  hens  (Fig.  266).  A  little  lard  smeared  under  the 
wings  and  on  the  heads  of  young  chickens  helps  to  keep 
them  free  from  lice.  For  mites  the  best  remedy  is  to 
paint  the  roosts  or  even  the  whole  interior  of  the  coop 
with  carbolinium,  a  liquid  which  may  be  purchased  at 
paint  stores.  This  not  only  kills  the  mites,  but  pre- 
vents others  from  invading  the  coop  for  a  long  time. 
(Exp.  7.) 

Disease,  whether  in  men  or  other  animals,  is  in  most 
cases  the  result  of  the  work  of  germs;  and  the  germs 
that  cause  a  disease  are  likely  to  pass  from  one  animal  to 
another.  To  prevent  a  disease  from  getting  a  foothold  or 
spreading,  premises  should  be  kept  clean,  for  germs  are 
abundant  in  filth.  The  drinking  vessels  of  poultry 
should  be  scalded  or  cleaned  frequently  with  an  anti- 
septic to  kill  germs,  and  pure  water  should  be  provided. 
Contaminated  water  is  a  very  common  carrier  of  the 
germs  of  deadly  diseases. 

When  a  disease  like  cholera  or  roup  appears  in  a  flock, 
the  sick  fowls  should  at  once  be  quarantined,  or  killed, 
and  the  premises  should  be  freed  of  all  infectious  matter. 
Cholera  is  a  disease  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  roup 
is  similar  to  a  severe  cold  in  the  head.  Chickens  are 


Poultry  Keeping  325 

to  a  considerable  degree  subject  to  colds  and  catarrh. 
These  are  germ  diseases,  that  are  especially  likely  to 
attack  fowls  that  have  to  roost  in  cold,  drafty  places. 
People  who  keep  chickens  or  other  poultry  under  right 
conditions  will  not  be  troubled  much  by  having  disease 
in  their  flocks. 

Experiments  and  Observations 

1.  Let  pupils  report  the  number  of  different  breeds  of  chickens 
in  the  community.     Let  them  bring  in  a  specimen  of  each  for  study 
and  comparison.     Notice  weight,  color,  legs,  ear  lobes,  kind  of 
comb,  color  of  skin,  and  size  and  color  of  eggs. 

2.  Make  a  trap  nest,  following  instructions  in  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 682. 

3.  Draw  a  plan  for  a  poultry  house  ten  feet  wide  and  twenty 
feet  long.     Estimate  the  cost  of  materials  necessary  to  build  it. 

4.  Make  an  egg  tester  as  shown  in  Figure  264  and  test  a  setting 
of  eggs  about  the  seventh  day. 

5.  Set  six  eggs  under  a  hen,  one  of  the  eggs  being  infertile. 
Each  day  open  and  examine  one  of  the  fertile  eggs  to  see  what 
progress  has  been  made  by  the  embryo.     On  the  sixth  day,  exam- 
ine the  infertile  egg. 

6.  Preserve  a  few  eggs  in  water  glass. 

7.  Under  a  magnifying  glass,  examine  specimens  of  mites  and 
poultry  lice. 

8.  Observe  a  pigeon  as  it  drinks.     Other  birds  do  not  drink 
in  the  same  way. 

References 

"Poultry  Management."     Farmers'  Bulletin  287. 
"A  Simple  Trap  Nest  for  Poultry."     Farmers'  Bulletin  682. 
"Feeding  Hens  for  Production."     Farmers'  Bulletin  1067. 
"  Natural   and   Artificial   Incubation   of  Hens'   Eggs."      Farmers' 
Bulletin  585. 

"Ducks  and  Geese."     Farmers'  Bulletin  64. 
"Turkeys."    Farmers'  Bulletin  791. 


326  Nature-Study  Agriculture 

"Guineas."     Fanners' Bulletin  858. 

"Squabs."     Farmers'  Bulletin  684. 

"Important  Poultry  Diseases."     Farmers'  Bulletin  957. 

Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

I.   American  Class.     Farmers'  Bulletin  806. 
II.   Mediterranean  and  Continental  Classes.     Farmers'  Bulletin 

898. 
III.   Asiatic,  English,  and  French  Classes.     Farmers'  Bulletin  1052. 


INDEX 


A  star  (*)  after  a  page  number  indicates  that  an  illustration  of  the  subject  appears  in 
connection  with  the  reference. 


Age,  of  cow,  260;   of  horse,  285-286.* 
Agriculture,  divisions  of,  1-2. 
Air,  use  of,  to  plants,  16-17*;    sup- 
plied   by    cultivation,    5 1 ;     shown 

to  be  in  soil,  61. 
Alfalfa,     importance    of,     113-114*; 

inoculation   of,    114-115;     bulletin 

on,  118;    for  cows,  293. 
Alkali,  how  formed,  34;    removed  by 

drainage,  59.* 
Ammonia,  sulfate  of,  174.* 
Animalcules,  238. 
Anthers,  10.* 
Aphis,  spraying  for,  195. 
Apples,  spray  for  codling  worm,  198- 

199.* 

Army  worms,  208. 
Arsenic,  as  an  insecticide,  197-198. 
Artesian  wells,  162. 
Ayrshires,    origin,    255-256;     record, 

257-* 

Babcock  test,  267-270.* 

Bacteria,  discovery  of,  in  legumes, 
44-45;  causing  nodules,  44-47*; 
character  of,  236-237*;  food  of, 
237;  increase,  237-238*;  causing 

,  decay,  238,  240*;  favorable  soil  con- 
ditions for,  239-240;  in  milk,  241; 
cause  of  disease,  241-242 ;  sources 
of,  in  milk,  262 ;  effect  of  temper- 
ature on,  264.* 

Bats,  guano  from,  175;  destroy 
insects,  230. 

Beans,  128-130*;  tepary,  160; 
affected  by  weevils,  200-201.* 

Bees,  213-218;  pollination  by,  213; 
observation  hive,  213-214;  work 
of  colony,  215;  kinds,  215*;  hive, 
216,*  218*;  veil,  217-218*; 
swarming,  217-218;  races  of,  219; 
bulletin,  219. 

Beets,  improved  by  selection,  93 ; 
culture,  134. 

Bichlorid  of  mercury,  248. 

Birds,  beneficial  and  harmful,  220; 
examples  of  benefit  done,  221- 
228;  methods  of  working,  229- 
230;  protection  of,  231-232*; 
enemies  of,  232-233;  houses,  233*; 
how  to  observe,  234. 


Blackbird,  226.* 

Blight,     of     peaches,     248-249;      of 

potatoes,  249. 
Blue  jay,  231. 
Bluestone,     in     Bordeaux     mixture, 

245-247. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  for  potato  blight, 

137;    making,  246-247.* 
Botfly,  287.* 
Breeds,  of  cattle,  251-252;    of  hogs, 

273;      of     goats,     276-277*;      of 

sheep,    279*;     of   dogs,    280-283*; 

of   horses,    283-284*;     of    rabbits, 

287-288. 

Brown-tail  moth,  210—211. 
Budding,  74-81.* 
Bulbs,    flower,     153 ;     planting    and 

care,  154-1 55. 

Bulletins,  how  to  obtain,  37. 
Bumblebee,  relation  to  clover,  191. 
Burbank  potato,  97. 
Burroughs,    John,    friend    of    birds, 

234*;    quotation  from,  236. 
Butter  fat,  amount  in  milk,  252. 
Butterfly,  metamorphosis,   192-195.* 

Cabbage,  root  of,  2*;    planting  and 

care,  128. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  128-129.* 
Calcium,    as   a   plant-food   material, 

170. 

Calyx,  10.* 
Cambium  layer,  of  stock  and  scion, 

76-77. 
Capillary    action,    31-33*;     in    soil, 

50-5I-* 
Carbohydrates,    in   stock   feed,    292- 

293- 
Carbon  bisulfid,  an  insecticide,  200- 

201.* 

Carbon  dioxid,  use  of,  to   plant,  18; 

common  uses  of,  19;    experiments, 

20,  21. 

Carrots,  134. 
Caterpillar     engine,      56;       drawing 

harvester,  113.* 
Caterpillars,      193-194;      killed     by 

parasites,  202-204.* 
Cats,  protecting  birds  from,  231-233.* 
Centrifugal   force,    in    clarifier,    267; 

in  separator,  270-271.* 


327 


328 


Index 


Chemical  action,  as  a  soil-forming 
agency,  23. 

Chickens,  breeds,  297-302*;  im- 
provement of,  302-303 ;  housing, 
309-310*;  feeding,  311-316;  in- 
sects and  diseases,  323-325.* 

Chicks,  feeding,  315-317;*  brooding, 
319*;  development  of  embryo, 
320-321.* 

Chinch  bug,  111-112.* 

Chlorophyll,  9;   experiment,  13. 

Cholera,  of  hogs,  275-276.* 

Clarifier,  267. 

Clay,  effect  on  soil,  28;  weight  of, 
29;  water-holding  power,  33. 

Clover,  nodules  on,  45*;  used  in  a 
rotation,  102 ;  pollinated  by 
bumblebee,  191. 

Coal,  yields  nitrogen,  175. 

Codling  moth,  198-199.* 

Cold  frame,  125.* 

Conservation  of  wild  life,  227,*  232.* 

Corn,  for  seed,  63-66*;  history  of 
improvement  of,  91 ;  importance 
in  United  States,  104-105*;  plant- 
ing and  care,  105-109*;  kinds, 
106*;  sweet  corn,  133;  smut  on, 
243-244.* 

Corn-ear  worm,  133-134. 

Corpuscles,  destroy  bacteria,  238. 

Cotton-boll  weevil,  211-212.* 

Cover  crop,  how  used,  42-43.* 

Cows,  breeds  of,  251;  illustrations, 
253-259*;  in  stanchions,  262*; 
feeding,  292-294. 

Cream,  252. 

Creeper,  229-230.* 

Crops,  relative  importance  of,  103- 
105.* 

Cucumber  beetle,  133.* 

Cucumbers,  131-133.* 

Cultivation,  an  aid  to  weathering, 
43;  several  effects  of,  50-53*; 
of  corn,  108-109.* 

Curl  leaf,  of  currants,  195*;  of 
peaches,  248-249.* 

Cuttings,  advantages  of,  69;  hard- 
wood, 70*;  soft  wood,  71.* 

Cutworms,  208;    eaten  by  birds,  228. 

Cyanide,  bottle  for  killing  insects, 
190*;  as  an  insecticide,  199.* 

Dairy,  bacteria  in,  241 ;  inspection 
of,  261;  equipment  of,  262-271.* 

Dairy  cows,  alfalfa  for,  113-114"; 
breeds  of,  251;  illustrations,  253- 
259*;  feeding,  292-293. 

Damping  off,  250. 


Dams,  use  of,  in  irrigating,  162  ;  Roose- 
velt, 164*;  Elephant  Butte,  Arrow 
Rock,  and  Assuan,  165. 

Decay,  caused  by  bacteria,  238,  240.* 

Dehorning,  260. 

Diseases,  of  potatoes,  137;  caused 
by  bacteria,  236,  241 ;  caused  by 
fungi,  244;  of  cows,  260. 

Dogs,  value  of,  280-281*;  care  of, 
281-282;  breeds,  280-283.* 

Drag,  54. 

Drainage,  effects  on  soil,  58-60*; 
of  air,  82-86;*  remedies  sour  soil, 
240. 

Dry  farming,  156-161 ;  contrasted 
with  irrigation,  156;  amount  of 
water  and  depth  of  soil  necessary, 
156-157;  methods  employed  in, 
157-161. 

Ducks,  305-306.* 

Durhams.     See  Shorthorn  cattle. 

Dutch  belted  cow,  254.* 

Earthworms,  213. 

Eggs,  composition  of,  311*;  number 
produced  on  different  diets,  313*; 
a  "finished  product,"  314*;  in- 
cubation of,  316-321*;  fertile 
and  infertile,  320;  testing,  321*; 
preserving,  322-323.* 

Elements  needed  by  plants,  14-15.* 

Evaporation,  from  leaves,  6*,  8*, 
156-157;  checked  by  cultivation, 
50-52.* 

Fallowing,  160-161. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  how  to  secure,  37. 

Farm  management,  101. 

Fats,  in  milk,  267-271*;  in  feeds, 
292;  in  eggs,  311.* 

Feeding,  principles  of,  290-294; 
hogs,  273-275*;  goats,  277;  sheep, 
278;  dogs,  282;  rabbits,  289-290; 
horses  and  cows,  292-293 ;  hens. 
311-315;  chicks,  315-316. 

Feeds,  mineral  matter,  290;  protein, 
291 ;  carbohydrates  and  fats, 
292;  amount  necessary,  292-293. 

Fertility,  of  wild  land,  38-39 ;  how  to 
preserve,  41-48*;  effect  of  live- 
stock, 42,  272;  affected  by  bac- 
teria, 236;  increased  by  decay, 
239-240.* 

Fertilizers,  added  to  make  up  loss, 
41;  "complete,"  121,  170;  an 
economical  method  of  using,  131; 
commercial,  170;  from  coke  ovens, 
174*;  from  packing  houses,  176; 


Index 


329 


by  fixation  of  nitrogen,  176-177; 
from  barnyard,  180-187*;  bulletins 
on,  187. 

Fig,  pollination,  191. 

Fixation  of  nitrogen,  45  ;  by  electrical 
method,  176;  by  Haber  method, 
176-177;  by  bacteria,  177. 

Fleas,  carriers  of  disease,  205-207.* 

Flowers,  parts  of,  10*;  arrangement 
in  garden,  149-150.* 

Fly,  metamorphosis,  191-193*;  cause 
of  screw  worms,  205 ;  carrier  of 
disease,  242. 

Formalin,  use  of,  for  potatoes,  137. 

Foundation  for  bees,  216-218.* 

Frost,  protection  of  orchard  from, 
82,  85*;  on  low  ground,  85.* 

Fruit,  varieties  perpetuated  by  graft- 
ing, 97- 

Fumigation,  to  kill  insects,  199-200.* 

Fungi,  character,  242;*  life  history 
of,  243. 

Fungicide,  definition,  244;  prepa- 
ration of,  246.* 

Fungous  diseases,  damage  done  by, 
244*;  of  grain,  243,*  244,*  245,* 
249*;  of  peach,  248*;  of  seed- 
lings, 250. 

Garden,  benefits  of,  119;  fertilizing 
the,  119-122;  preparation  of  soil, 
121 ;  tools,  122-123.* 

Gases,  given  off  by  plants,  9 ;  in  the 
air,  16-17;  made  into  a  fertilizer, 
176;  escaping  from  manure,  182. 

Geese,  306-307.* 

Germination,  process  of,  11-12;  ex- 
periment, 13. 

Germs,  of  disease,  236;  carried  by 
flies,  242. 

Glaciers,  26-27. 

Goats,  277.* 

Goldfish  for  water  garden,  153. 

Gopher,  223-224.* 

Grafting,  74-81.* 

Grafting  wax,  how  to  make,  79. 

Grasshopper,  metamorphosis,  192; 
food  of  hawks,  221-222. 

Grosbeak,  food  of,  226. 

Guano,  175.* 

Guernseys,  origin  of,  254-255 ;  rec- 
ord of,  256.* 

Guinea  fowls,  307. 

Gypsum,  180. 

Gypsy  moth,  210-211. 

Haber  process,  176. 

Harrow,  its  work,  54 ;  spike-tooth,  56. 


Harvesting  machinery,  112-113.* 

Hawks,  benefit  done  by,  221;  va- 
rieties, 223*;  harmful  ones,  230.* 

Herefords,  251-252. 

Hessian  fly,  111-112.* 

Hoganizing,  303. 

Hogs,  breeds  of,  272-273*;  auto- 
matic feeder,  274*;  pen  for,  274*; 
cholera,  275-276*;  feed,  273,  275. 

Holsteins,  origin,  253 ;  records  of, 
253,  259.* 

Horses,  breeds  of,  283—285*;  gaits, 
285;  age,  285-286*;  caring  for, 
286;  feed  needed,  292-293. 

Hotbed?  122,  124*;  advantages  of, 
125-126. 

Housing,  dairy  cows,  262*;  goats, 
276*;  sheep,  278;  dogs,  281;  rab- 
bits, 288-289*;  poultry,  309-310.* 

Humus,  a  constituent  of  soil,  27-28; 
ability  to  hold  moisture,  30,  33; 
formed  in  sod,  41 ;  changes  to 
soluble  food  material,  160;  made 
by  bacteria,  239-240.* 

Hybridization,  by  cross  pollinating, 
93-94-* 

Importation,  of  navel  orange,  98; 
of  durum  wheat,  no;  of  Dutch 
bulbs,  154;  of  Australian  lady 
beetle,  201-202 ;  of  Shorthorn 
cattle,  256. 

Improvement,  by  seed  selection, 
88-93.* 

Incubation,  316-321.* 

Inoculation,  of  a  legume  crop,  47 ; 
a  pure  culture  for,  48* ;  by  bacteria 
in  manure,  239;  for  hog  cholera, 
275-276.* 

Insecticides,  application  of,  195-200*; 
definition,  244. 

Insects,  number  of  species,  189; 
their  means  of  protection,  189-190; 
life  histories,  191-195*:  sucking 
and  biting,  195-196*;  predacious, 
200-203*;  parasitic,  202-204*; 
killed  by  birds,  225-230.* 

Invention,  of  plow,  52-53,  55*;  of 
harvesting  machinery,  112-113.* 

Irrigation,  contrasted  with  dry  farm- 
ing, 156;  sources  of  water  for, 
161-163*;  methods  of,  165-168; 
measuring  water,  167-169*;  bul- 
letin on,  169. 

Jerseys,   milk   of,    252;     origin,    254, 

record  of,  255.* 
Jungle  fowl,  311-312.* 


330 


Index 


Kafir  corn,  varieties  of,  115*;  a  dry 

farming  crop,  159. 
Kerosene,   recipe  for  emulsion,   196; 

to  kill  mosquitoes,  207. 
Killdeer,  food  of,  221-222. 

Ladybird,  Australian,  201-203*;  de- 
stroyers of  plant  lice,  202. 

Larva,  definition,  192-193.* 

Lawn,  grading  for,  142 ;  planting 
and  care,  144-145;  bulletin,  155. 

Layering,  72-74.* 

Leaching,  causing  loss  of  soil  fer- 
tility, 40. 

Lead  arsenate,  spray  for  cabbage 
worm,  128;  use  as  insecticide,  198; 
for  cutworms,  208. 

Leaves,  evaporation  from,  6*,  8*, 
156-157;  make  plant  food,  7; 
stomata  of,  8,  156-157;  coloring 
matter,  9. 

Legumes,  used  as  cover  crop,  43*; 
the  home  of  bacteria,  45 ;  in- 
oculation of,  47 ;  fertilizers  needed, 
130;  in  rotation,  241. 

Lettuce,  130-131. 

Lime,  for  alfalfa  land,  114;  to  im- 
prove clay  soil,  120;  benefits, 
178-179*;  kinds,  179-180;  on 
sour  soil,  240-241 ;  in  Bordeaux 
mixture,  246;*  for  hogs,  275. 

Lime  sulfur,  248. 

Lister,  107. 

Livestock,  for  enriching  the  soil,  42, 
272;  corn  fed  to,  105;  reasons  for 
and  against  keeping,  272. 

Loam,  28-29;  good  for  root  crops, 
134. 

Manure,  as  food  for  bacteria,  48; 
amount  allowable,  120-121;  meth- 
ods of  using,  180-181*;  storing, 
181-183*;  flies  breed  in,  183-184; 
value  of,  184;  effect  of  too  much, 
185-186;  experiment  with,  186; 
changes  to  humus,  239. 

Metamorphosis,  191-195.* 

Mildew,  on  roses,  244;  remedy  for, 
250. 

Milk,  souring,  236,  250;  value  of, 
251;  differences  in  richness,  252; 
production  of,  258-259;  certified, 
261 ;  keeping  clean,  262-264* ; 
cooling,  264-265*;  straining,  266,* 
268*;  testing,  267-270*;  separat- 
ing, 270-271*;  milk  vein,  258- 
259*;  bucket,  267.* 


Milo,  illustration,  115*;  a  dry- 
farming  crop,  159. 

Miner's  inch,  167-169.* 

Mold,  nature  of,  242.* 

Mosquitoes,  cause  of  disease,  206; 
how  to  destroy,  207 ;  eaten  by 
birds,  221-222. 

Moths,  Cecropia  and  Sphinx,  194.* 

Motors,  for  pumping,   161-162.* 

Mulch,  dirt,  50;  illustration  of, 
51*;  straw,  for  tomatoes,  127. 

Mushrooms,  lacking  in  chlorophyll, 
9;  nature  of,  242. 

Muskmelons,  131-133. 

Navel  orange,  introduction  of,  98- 
100.* 

Nests,  for  poultry,  310-311. 

Nighthawk,  food  of,  222;  beak,  225.* 

Nitrogen,  fixation  of,  by  bacteria, 
45-47,  239-240;  as  plant-food 
material,  170-171*;  in  fertilizers,  , 
173-176;  lost  from  soil  in  two 
ways,  172;  effect  of  lack  of,  172; 
in  Chile  saltpeter,  173;  fixation 
by  machinery,  176-177;  resulting 
from  decay,  239-240. 

Nodules,  46-47.* 

Oats,  smut  of,  244-245. 

Oil,  in  feeds,  292.     See  Fats. 

Onions,  138-140. 

Orange,    introduction   of   navel,   98- 

100.* 

Oriole,  230. 
Ornamental    gardening,   benefits    of, 

142-143*;     illustrations    of,    143,* 

145,*  146.* 
Osmosis,  experiment  in,  5-6*;  action 

of,  in  plants,  6-7. 
Ovule,  10.* 
Owls,     example     of     benefit,      221; 

varieties,  223*;    gophers  killed  by, 

224.* 
Oxygen,  a  plant-food  material,  16-18; 

experiment,  20. 
Oyster  plant,  134. 

Parasites,  on  other  insects,  202-204*; 

on  animals,  204-206*;    on  human 

beings,  205-207.* 
Paris  green,  197-198. 
Parsnips,  134. 
Pasteurization,  to  kill  disease  germs, 

261. 
Peach,     pruning,     82-83*;      blight, 

248-249 ;   curl  leaf,  248-249.* 
Peach-tree  borer,  211. 


Index 


Peas,  128-130. 

Pebbles,  how  made,  25-26.* 

Phosphorus,  a  plant-food  material, 
170. 

Pigeons,  passenger,  232*;  domestic, 
308. 

Plant,  parts  of,  2. 

Plant-food  materials,  how  absorbed 
by  roots,  3;  manufactured  in 
leaves,  7;  elements  necessary, 
14-15,*  171*;  from  air  and  soil, 
16*;  made  available  by  weather- 
ing, 43;  in  fertilizers,  170;  re- 
moved by  crop,  171. 

Plant  lice,  eaten  by  ladybird  beetles, 
202;  eaten  by  birds,  222. 

Plow,  of  Egyptians,  52,  55*;  work 
of  modern,  53;  disk,  53.* 

Plowing,  when  soil  is  wet,  54. 

Plow  sole,  53. 

Poisoning,  from  sorghums,  116; 
caused  by  sprays,  128. 

Pollen,  10.* 

Pollination,  the  process,  n,  12*; 
results,  93  ;  illustrated,  94.* 

Pond  lilies,  151-153.* 

Potassium,  a  plant-food  material, 
170;  in  fertilizers,  178. 

Potatoes,  from  seed,  95,  99*;  culture, 
I3S~i37*;  diseases  of,  249. 

Poultry,  value  of,  296;  housing, 
309-310*;  feeding,  311-316;  in- 
sects and  diseases,  323-325.* 

Propagation,  methods  of,  62,  74. 

Protein,  amount  in  some  feeds, 
291 ;  varying  proportions  necessary, 
293- 

Pruning,  at  time  of  transplanting, 
81*;  at  end  of  first  and  second 
years,  83*;  tools,  84*;  tomatoes, 
127-128;  trees,  147*,  149.* 

Pumpkins,  131-133.   . 

Pupa,  definition,  194. 

Rabbits,    utility    of,     287;      breeds, 

287-288;     housing,    288;     feeding 

and  care,  289-290.* 
Rainfall,      meaning,      30;       amount 

necessary    for  dry    farming,    157; 

greatest  in  highlands,  163.* 
Rats,  carriers  of  disease,  206-207.* 
Reaper,  112.* 
Robin,  food  of,  226,  228. 
Roller,  54. 

Roosts,  for  poultry,  310-^311. 
Root  hairs,  3-4*;   experiment,  12. 
Roots,  kinds  of,  2*;   uses  of,  3;   help 

form    soil,    25 ;     prevent    erosion, 


39*;     developed  by  layering,  73*; 

of  alfalfa,  114*;   used  as  food,  134, 

I37-I39-* 

Roses,  culture,  150—151.* 
Rotation  of  crops,  advantages,   101- 

102*;   examples  of,  102-103  ;   holds 

insects  in  check,   112. 
Rust,  of  iron,  23 ;    of  grain,  244. 

Salsify,  134. 

Saltpeter,  173-174.* 

Sand,  effect  of,  on  soil,  29;  action 
toward  water,  30-31,*  33. 

Sap,  flow  of,  in  tree  trunk,  7*;  ex- 
periments, 1 2-13 ;  flow  in  plant, 
16.* 

Scale  insects,  spray  for,  196;  fumi- 
gation for,  199*;  cottony  cushion, 
201-203*;  eaten  by  birds,  222. 

School  garden,  sale  of  vegetables, 
120.* 

Screw  worms,  205. 

Seed,  its  use  in  propagation,  10; 
parts  of,  ii ;  germination,  11-12; 
storing,  64;  depth  to  plant,  67-68; 
selection,  136. 

Seed  bed,  65-67. 

Seedling,  potatoes,  95,  99*;   fruit,  97. 

Seed  testing,  62-66.* 

Selection,  of  seed,  89-93*;  of  po- 
tatoes, 136. 

Separator,  270—271.* 

Sheep,  dipping  for  scab,  205*;  rais- 
ing, 278-280.* 

Shorthorn  cattle,  origin,  256;  color, 
257- 

Shrubbery,  arrangement  of,  145- 
147*;  need  for  pruning,  147. 

Silage,  293-294.* 

Slugs,  212-213.* 

Smut,  bulletin  on,  118;  nature  of, 
243-245*;  disinfecting  for,  249*; 
prevention  of,  250. 

Snails,  212-213. 

Snakes,  233. 

Soap,  used  in  sprays,  196-197. 

Sodium  nitrate,  in  Chile,  173-174.* 

Soil,  uses  of,  to  plant,  22  ;  how  formed, 
22-27;  sizes  of  grains,  27;  a 
magnified  view  of,  28;  texture, 
28;  weight,  29;  sourness  of,  34, 
240;  color  of,  34;  worn-out,  38; 
removal  by  erosion,  39*;  enriched 
by  humus,  239-240*;  conditions 
favorable  to  bacteria,  239-240.* 

Sorghums,  varieties  of,  115*;  uses, 
115-116;  bulletins  on,  118;  dry- 
farming  crops,  159. 


332 


Index 


Sparrows,  food  of,  224-225*;  Eng- 
lish, 225. 

Spiders,  202. 

Spiracles,  196. 

Spores  of  fungi,  243. 

Spraying,  cabbages,  128;  peach  trees, 
247-248.* 

Sprays,  contact  and  "stomach  poi- 
sons," 195. 

Squashes,  131-133. 

Stanchions,  262.* 

Stem,  flow  of  sap  in,  7,*  16.* 

Stigma,  10;    applying  pollen  to,  94.* 

Stomata,  8-9;  number  of,  156-157. 

Strains,  meaning  of,  256. 

Strawberry,   method  of  propagation, 

74-75-* 

Subsoil,  23,*  29-30. 

Subsurface  packer,  158-159.* 

Sudan  grass,  116-117.* 

Sulfur,  for  mildew,  151;  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, 170. 

Sunflower,  number  of  stomata,  156- 
157- 

Swarming,  of  bees,  217-218. 

Sweet  corn,  133-134. 

Sweet  potatoes,  137-139.* 

Tent  caterpillars,  208-210.* 

Tepary  bean,  160. 

Texas-fever  tick,  204,  206.* 

Thinning,  time  and  method,  134. 

Tobacco  extract,  for  cabbage  insects, 
128;  for  sucking  insects,  196-197. 

Tomatoes,  improvement  of,  88-89*; 
culture,  126-127.* 

Tractor,  kinds  of,  56;  illustration, 
58.  *. 

Transpiration,  6—8*;  from  sun- 
flowers, 156-157. 

Transplanting,  reason  for  care  in, 
5;  advantages  of,  125-126*;  in 
berry  boxes,  132;  of  tree,  147,* 
148.* 


Trap  nest,  303.* 

Trees,  flow  of  sap  in,  7*;  use  of,  in 
ornamental  gardening,  147;  trans- 
planting, 148.* 

Tree  surgery,  84-86.* 

Tuberculosis,  of  cattle,  260-261 ;  of 
hogs,  276. 

Turkeys,  304.* 

Underground  crops,  134-140. 

Ventilation,   of  soil,   51;    of  poultry 

house,  309.* 
Vine  crops,  131-133.* 

Water,  absorbed  by  roots,  3 ;  where 
to  apply  to  trees,  5 ;  loss  from 
leaves,  6,*  8,*  157;  as  a  food, 
15-16;  in  air,  17,  20;  made  by 
burning,  20 ;  effect  of  too  much, 
21 ;  as  a  soil-forming  agency,  25; 
how  held  in  soil,  30-34;  amount 
necessary,  156-157. 

Water  garden,  how  to  make  and  care 
for,  151-153.* 

Watermelons,  131-132. 

Water  table,  58;  lowered  by  drain- 
age, 60.* 

Weeds,  why  harmful,  52. 

Weevils,  in  beans  and  peas,  200-201* ; 
cotton-boll,  2 1 1-2 1 2.* 

Weight  of  soil,  29. 

Wheat,  improvement  by  selection, 
89;  importance,  109;  winter  and 
spring,  109-110;  introduction  of 
durum,  iio-m;  insect  enemies 
of,  111-112;  bulletins  on,  118; 
smut  on,  244,  249*;  a  dry-land 
variety,  160. 

Wheel  hoe,  122-123. 

Windmills,  161. 

Woodpecker,  228-229.* 

Wren,  food  of,  226,  229. 


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NEW-WORLD  ! 

SCIENCE  SERIES        ) 

Edited    by    JOHN    W.    RITCHIE 

THE    publication    of    books    that    "apply    the    world's 
knowledge  to  the  world's  needs"  is  the  ideal  of  this 
house  and  it  is  intended  that  the  different  volumes  of  this 
|        series   shall   express  this  ideal   in   a  very  concrete  way. 

Completed 

Human  Physiology.     By   John   W.  Ritchie,   Professor  of   Biology, 

§  College  of  William  and  Mary.    A  text  on  physiology,  hygiene, 

and  sanitation  for  upper  grammar  or  j  unior  high  schools. 

Laboratory  Manual  for  Human  Physiology.  By  Carl  Hart-man, 
University  of  Texas.  A  manual  to  accompany  Ritchie's  Human 
Physiology.  Bound  hi  paper  and  cloth. 

Science  for  Beginners.  By  Delos  Fall,  Albion  College,  Michigan. 
A  beginning  text  in  general  science  for  intermediate  schools  and 
junior  high  schools. 

I  Exercise  and  Review  Book  in  Biology.  By  J.  G.  Blaisdell,  Yonkers,  = 
N.  Y.,  High  School.  A  combined  laboratory  guide,  notebook  and 
review  book  for  students'  use.  Written  from  the  standpoint  of 
efficiency  and  furnishing  material  for  a  year's  work  and  to  ac- 
company any  one  of  several  high-school  texts  in  general  biology. 
Bound  in  strong  paper. 

Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds.  By  E.  L.  Moseley,  Ohio  State  Normal 
College,  Bowling  Green.  A  book  of  outdoor  science  for  junior  high 
schools  and  the  upper  grammar  grades. 

Personal  Hygiene  and  Home  Nursing.  By  Louisa  C.  Lippilt, 
University  of  Wisconsin.  A  practical  text  for  use  with  classes 
of  young  women  in  vocational  and  industrial  high  schools,  colleges, 
and  normal  schools. 

Science  of  Plant  Life.  By  E.  N.  Transeau,  Ohio  State  University. 
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Principles  of  Zoology.  By  T.  D.  A.  Cocker  ell,  University  of  Colorado. 
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Experimental  Organic  Chemistry.  By  A.  P.  West,  University  of  the 
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Common  Science.  By  Carlcton  W.  Waskburne,  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
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NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 
\ 

Edited  by  John  W.  Ritchie 


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SCIENCE  for  BEGINNERS 

By  DELOS  FALL 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Albion  College 


I 


'"T^O  supply  the  need  for  a  course  that  will  give  the  pre- 
•*•  paratory  training  which  any  scientific  study  demands, 
SCIENCE  FOR  BEGINNERS  by  Professor  Delos  Fall  was  made. 


The  aim  in  this  text  is  to  win  the  interest  of  pupils,  to  1 
give  them  conceptions  of  nature  that  are  fundamental,  and  | 
above  all  to  ground  them  in  the  method  of  science. 

The  subject  matter  has  to  do  with  the  earth  sciences,  and 
principally  with  physics  and  chemistry.     In  the  develop- 
ment of  each  topic,  every  advantage  that  the  pupils'  ex-         | 
perience  and  interest  may   afford  is   utilized.     Exercises 
or  experiments  are  interspersed  throughout  the  work,  and 
for  these  only  the  simplest  materials  are  required.     The 
studies  arc  carried  to  those  connecting  principles  which 
permit  the  organization  of  knowledge.    The  book  is  jllus-        1 
trated  with  a  number  of  excellent  photographs  and  over        I 
200  drawings  of  more  than  usual  merit. 

The  text  is  adapted  for  use  In  grades  seven,  eight,  and 
nine,  or  in  any  classes  that  are  about  to  take  up  their  first 
work  in  science.  It  will  prove  helpful  to  the  teachers  and 
pupils  who  use  it  directly,  and  its  influence  will  continue 
with  classes  as  .they  advance.  It  will  thoroughly  ground 
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work  in  science. 

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NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 
Edited  by  John  W.  Ritchie 

TREES,  STARS  and  BIRDS  I 

A  BOOK  OF  OUTDOOR  SCIENCE 
By  EDWIN  LINCOLN  MOSELEY 

Head  of  the  Science  Department,  State  Normal  College  of 
Northwestern  Ohio 

THE  usefulness  of  nature  study  in  the  schools  has  been 
seriously  limited  by  the  lack  of  a  suitable  textbook.  | 
It  is  to  meet  this  need  that  Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds  is 
issued.  The  author  is  one  of  the  most  successful  teach- 
ers of  outdoor  science  in  this  country.  He  believes  in 
field  excursions,  and  his  text  is  designed  to  help  teachers 
and  pupils  in  the  inquiries  that  they  will  make  for  them- 
selves. 

The  text  deals  with  three  phases  of  outdoor  science  that 
have  a  perennial   interest,   and   it  will   make  the  benefit 
of  the  author's  long  and  successful   experience  available        | 
to  younger  teachers. 

The  first  section  deals  with  trees,  and  the  discussion  of 
maples  is  typical:  the  student  is  reminded  that  he  has 
eaten  maple  sugar;  there  is  an  interesting  account  of  its 
production ;  the  fact  is  brought  out  that  the  sugar  is  really 
made  in  the  leaves.  The  stars  and  planets  that  all  should 
know  are  told  about  simply  and  clearly.  The  birds 
commonly  met  with  are  considered,  and  their  habits  of 
feeding  and  nesting  are  described.  Pertinent  questions 
are  scattered  throughout  each  section. 

The  book  is  illustrated  with  167  photographs,  69  draw- 
ings, 9  star  maps,  and  with  16  color  plates  of  58  birds, 
from  paintings  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes. 

It  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  junior  high  schools,  yet  the 
presentation  is  simple  enough  for  pupils  in  the  sixth  grade. 

5 

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PIONEER  LIFE  SERIES 


THE  WHITE  INDIAN  BOY 


OR  UNCLE  NICK  AMONG  THE  SHOSHONES 

Everybody  that  knew  Uncle  Nick  Wilson  was  always  begging  him 
to  tell  about  the  pioneer  days  in  the  Northwest.  When  he  was  eight 
years  old  the  Wilson  family  crossed  the  plains  by  ox-team.  He  was 
only  twelve  when  he  slipped  away  from  home  to  travel  north  with 
a  band  of  Shoshones,  with  whom  he  wandered  about  for  two  years, 
sharing  all  the  experiences  of  Indian  life.  Later,  after  he  had  re- 
turned home,  he  was  a  pony  express  rider,  he  drove  a  stage  on  the 
Overland  route,  and  he  acted  as  guide  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Gositite  Indians. 

A  few  years  ago  Uncle  Nick  was  persuaded  to  write  down  his  recol- 
lections, and  Professor  Howard  N.  Driggs  helped  him  to  make  his 
account  into  a  book  that  is  a  true  record  of  pioneer  life,  with  its 
hardships  and  adventures. 

The  White  Indian  Boy  is  illustrated  with  many  instructive  photo- 
graphs and  with  drawings  of  Indian  life  by  F.  N.  Wilson. 

Copies  of  this  book  can  be  obtained  from  any  bookseller.  Discounts 
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CONSERVATION   SERIES 


~1 


Conservation     Reader 

By  HAROLD  W.    FAIRBANKS,  Ph.  D. 

Lecturer,     University    of    California',    Geography    Supervisor     Berkeley 
Public  Schools 

A  small  book  bringing  out  in  a  simple  and  interesting  manner  the 
principles  of  conservation  of  natural  resources  has  long  been  wanted , 
for  there  has  been  little  on  the  subject  that  could  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  pupils.  It  is  to  answer  this  need  that  Fairbanks'  CONSERVATION 
READER  has  been  prepared. 

The  book  touches  upon  every  phase  of  conservation,  but  it  deals  at 
greatest  length  with  saving  the  soil,  the  forests,  and  wild  life.  It  is  one 
of  the  author's  main  purposes  to  arouse  a  stronger  sentiment  for  pre- 
serving what  remains  of  the  forests  as  well  as  for  extending  their  areas. 
This  is  because  proper  forestation  will  lessen  the  danger  of  floods  and 
of  erosion  of  the  soil,  and  it  will  encourage  the  return  of  the  wild  crea- 
tures that  are  of  so  much  economic  importance  and  add  so  much  to  the 
joy  of  life. 

The  matter  is  presented  in  an  easy  narrative  style  that  is  calculated  to 
arouse  the  intelligent  interest  of  children.  The  text  is  illustrated  with 
photographs  of  wild  animals,  trees,  landscapes,  and  rarely  beautiful 
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happy  throughout. 

CONSERVATION  READER  should  be  used  as  a  reader  or  as  a  book  for 
regular  study  in  every  elementary  school  in  the  country. 

Cloth.    vi+  216  pages. 


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THE  HAWTHORNE  CLASSICS  | 

FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Edited  by  EDWARD  EVERETT  HALE,  JR.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  English 
in  Union  College.     In  eight  volumes.     Uniformly  bound  in  cloth. 

These  classics  are  adapted  to  higher  grammar  grades  and 
satisfy  the  universal  demand  for  complete  literary  wholes.        1 

AMERICAN  ESSAYS.     269  pages. 

Examples  from  our  four  greatest  essayists,  that  can  also  be 
used  in  the  lower  classes  of  high  schools. 

AMERICAN  STORIES.     285  pages. 

Eight  great  American  short  stories  from  Washington   Irving 

to  Edward  Everett  Hale.    Each  is  a  model  of  the  kind,  and          | 

is  distinct  in  subject  and  treatment. 

I         BALLADS  AND  BALLAD  POETRY.     270  pages. 
Genuine  ballads  of  the  olden  time  with  the  true  ballad  flavor, 
a  group  of  the  best  modern  ballads,  and  three  stirring  poems 
of  greater  length  which  have  the  ballad  character. 

ENGLISH  ESSAYS.     254  pages. 

By  Lamb,  Addison,  Goldsmith,  and  Thackeray.  Some  are 
also  well  adapted  to  high  school  and  normal  classes. 

ENGLISH  STORIES.     254  pages. 

Five  great  English  stories  of  varied  type.     This  volume  with 
"American   Stories"   will    help   to   develop   the   literary  sense,          | 
while  gratifying  the  love  for  a  good  story.     Can  be  used  as 
low  as  the  sixth  grade. 

GREEK  MYTHS  IN  ENGLISH  DRESS.     256  pages. 

Six  immortal  Greek  myths  retold  by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
Charles  Kingsley,  and  Thomas  Bulfinch.  These  are  easy 
enough  for  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades. 

|         LONGER  NARRATIVE  POEMS.     271  pages. 

Ten  of  the  best  narrative  poems  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
varied  in  style  and  meter,  and  of  thrilling  interest  to  pupils 
of  the  hero-loving  age.  These  poems  might  be  used  in  the 
high  school  for  more  critical  study. 

SHAKESPEAREAN  COMEDIES.     320  pages. 

A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  As  You  Like  It,  and  The 
Tempest.  One,  at  least,  of  these  comedies  should  be  read  in 
the  grammar  grades. 

All  volumes  bound  in  cloth. 

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ANEW  supplementary  reader  in  nature  study  for  the 
intermediate  grades.  A  book  containing  a  vast 
amount  of  information  relating  to  insect  life — the  life 
story  of  the  spider,  the  fly,  the  bee,  the  wasp,  and  other 
insects — told  by  one  who  was  at  once  a  lover  of  nature,  a 
great  scientist,  and  a  most  entertaining  writer.  Maeter- 
linck calls  Fabre  the  "insects'  Homer,"  and  declares  that 
his  work  is  as  much  a  classic  as  the  famous  Greek  epic, 
and  deserves  to  be  known  and  studied  as  a  classic. 

This  is  the  first  time  that  Fabre's  writings  have  been 
made  available  for  school  use,  and  the  book  will  prove 
a  delight  to  school  children  wherever  they  are  given  the 
chance  to  read  it.  No  live  boy  or  girl  could  fail  to  be 
interested  in  nature  subjects  presented  by  so  gifted  a 
naturalist  as  Fabre  in  the  form  of  such  absorbing  ad- 
ventures. 


The  many  quaint  sketches  with  which  the  book  has  been 
illustrated  by  Elias  Goldberg  complete  its  charm. 

A  useful  index  is  included. 

Cloth.     300  pages. 

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I    INSECT  ADVENTURES 

By  J.  HENRI  FABRE 

Selected  and  Arranged  for  Young  People  by  Louis  Seymour  Hasbrouck 


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Foundation  History  Series 

By  HENRY  W.  ELSON,  PH.  D.,  LITT.  D., 

Professor  of  History  in  Ohio   University,  and 

CORNELIA  E.  MACMULLAN,  PH.D., 

Head  of  English  Department 
Montclair  (New  Jersey)  State  Normal  School 

*"pHIS  series  follows  the  recommendations  of  the  Com- 
1  rnittee  of  Eight.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  lives 
of  leaders  and  heroes,  on  great  movements  and  important 
events.  The  social  side  of  history  is  given  special  promi- 
nence and  much  attention  is  devoted  to  those  features  of 
ancient  and  medieval  life  which  explain  the  important 
elements  of  modern  civilization. 

i 
= 

THE  STORY  OF  OUR  COUNTRY,  Book  I. 
For  use  in  grade  4.    vii-f-216  pages. 

THE  STORY  OF  OUR  COUNTRY,  Book  II. 

For  use  in  grade  5.     viii  -j-  283  pages. 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  OLD  WORLD. 

For  use  in  grade  6.     viii  -f-  248  pages. 


Each  volume   is  bound   in   cloth,   is  profusely  illustrated 
and  is  provided  with  colored  maps. 

i  i 

Teachers  who   want  texts   for   an   elementary   course   in 
history   or    for    use    as    supplementary    reading   material 
will  find  the  FOUNDATION  HISTORY  SERIES  exactly  suited       | 
to  their  needs. 

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HIIUIIHII iiiiiimiiiinii iiiiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiuiiiiiKr^J     y""" 

I    THE  AMERICAN  SPIRIT    | 

A  BASIS  FOR  WORLD  DEMOCRACY 

Edited  by 

PAUL  MONROE,  PH.D.,  LL.D.      and        IRVING  E.  MILLER,  PH.D. 
Columbia  University  Bellingham  Normal   School 

i  i 

|        'Tp  HE  American  Spirit,  like  the  American  people,  is  a        | 
A      composite.    The  mingled  qualities  of  discoverer,  ex-        1 
plorer,   colonist,    pioneer,    frontiersman,    and    immigrant, 

I  have  left  a  heritage  of  independence,  initiative,  dissatis-  I 
faction  with  existing  attainments,  a  forward  look,  a  con- 
fidence in  the  powers  of  the  common  man,  and  an  ideal- 
istic faith  in  his  worth  and  destiny.  Self-government, 
achieved  through  patriotic  struggle  and  made  secure 
through  hard  experience,  confirms  the  heritage.  Democ- 

1        racy  in  government,  preserved  from  corruption  only  by        | 
constant  vigilance   and  continual   practice,   goes  hand  in 
'hand  with  democracy  in  society;  the  two  lead  to  ideals  of        1 
industrial  democracy  yet  in  the  process  of  attainment. 

Through  civil  war,  ideals  of  national  unity  were  achieved 
and  the  national  destiny  was  made  sure.  An  enlightened 
diplomacy  committed  the  nation  to  a  policy  of  humanity 
and  generosity  towards  the  weaker  nations,  and  the  war 
of  1898  made  it  clear  to  the  world  that  that  policy  would 
I  be  upheld  at  any  cost.  The  crisis  of  the  World  War 
afforded  the  supreme  test  of  the  American  spirit,  and  in 
that  crisis  it  was  not  found  wanting;  the  heroism  of  the 
sons  was  found  worthy  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  fathers. 

How  the  varied  traits  of  the  forefathers  have  blended  to        | 
make  the  American  spirit  a  basis  for  world  democracy 
is  briefly  told  in  this  volume. 

Cloth,  xv  +  336  pages. 

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IIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


INDIAN   LIFE  AND   INDIAN  LORE 
INDIAN  DAYS  OF  THE  LONG  AGO 

Bifc 

EDWARD  S.  CURTIS 
Author  oj  "The  North  American  Indian" 

Illustrated  with  photographs  by  the  author  and  drawings 
by  F.  N.  Wilson 


I 


N  this  book  the  author  gives  an  intimate  view  of 
Indian  life  in  the  olden  days,  reveals  the  great  diversity 
of  language,  dress,  and  habits  among  them,  and  shows 
how  every  important  act  of  their  lives  was  influenced 
by  spiritual  beliefs  and  practices. 

The  book  tells  the  story  of  Kukusim,  an  Indian  lad 
who  is  eagerly  awaiting  the  time  when  he  shall  be  a 
warrior.  It  is  full  of  mythical  lore  and  thrilling  adven- 
tures, culminating  in  the  mountain  vigil,  when  Kukusim 
hears  the  spirit  voices  which  mark  the  passing  of  his 
childhood. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


